Design Differences
Jeannette Villatoro
BKF9454A
Professor Alina Perez
November 10, 2009
Abstract
Qualitative and quantitative research are fascinating designs that can interpret and articulate a vast majority of interesting psychological topics. The two designs differ greatly in the techniques of measure that are utilized along with the intended principle of the studies being conducted. Although different measures and practices may be in place that separates the two models, similarities in detection make the qualitative and quantitative research methods closely related with the ability to compliment one another with explosive learning opportunities that propels science forward.
Design Differences
Research is an imperatively significant aspect of psychology that allow understanding and new discovery to emerge. Two types of research that may be utilized are the quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative research is based more on the experience of the participant and documenting the findings of the research from the participant’s own view. Qualitative research deals with systematic data that is used to describe the results of a study. While both methods are quite lucrative for the purpose of gathering information, there are many characteristics that exemplify these methods of research. This author will attempt to uncover some of the characteristics underlying these methods of research, the benefits of each method and the contrast between the characteristics that make these methods so unique.
Qualitative research is designated to collect data and observe behavior as it occurs. Because of this facet of qualitative research, a researcher or experimenter can only speculate as to the causation of the experiment whereas qualitative research performs certain methods to try and uncover the actual cause and effect of a certain experiment. While qualitative research depends on the opinions and behaviors of others, quantitative research delves into why these behaviors occur through experimentation or the relationship between variables through descriptive methods (Hopkins, 2000). Since descriptive methods “do not involve the manipulation of an independent variable”, they vary from experimental methods quite intensely (Davis, Smith, 2009, p. 59). Furthermore, qualitative data tends to focus on smaller groups of participants with rich details about each individual. Quantitative research deals with more people and hopes to accomplish a generalization of the populations being examined (Davis, Smith, 2009). Because there are different outcomes that may result from the different research methods, it is important to understand the different ways in which these studies are conducted and how these may differ depending on the nature of the design.
Sampling is a common technique in research that helps discover viable results. Although it is an effective technique, it is very labor intensive (Stevens, 2009). There are various sampling methods that can be utilized in research, dependent on whether it is a qualitative or quantitative study. Usually sampling entails selecting certain groups of individuals from a larger group of people for a research study (Davis, Smith, 2009). Purposeful sampling is a deliberate method of sampling that is used to gain the insight of others on a certain topic of interest. The objective is for a researcher to select “information-rich cases for study in depth” (Patton, 2001). With purposeful sampling, a researcher will choose a select group of individuals based on certain characteristics. These characteristics may include age, sex, income and other variables. However, with quantitative research there is a random selection of people when sampling is done. The reason for random sampling is to ensure that certain variables that cannot be changed will not affect the findings (Davis, Smith, 2009). This is imperative for a quantitative experiment to hold dignity and show validity through its findings. The differences between non-random sampling and random sampling are strong and equate whether quantitative and qualitative research measures are taken to provide comprehensive results.
Another important factor of research is the researcher himself. His involvement and interpretation of the experiment is very valuable and also can even be debilitating depending on which research method is being used. If a researcher is conducting a quantitative experiment, he must be impartial and detached with an objective portrayal (Gleshne, Peshkin, 1992). In essence, while it is important to weed out the extraneous variables that may have a causal relationship with other variables in the experiment, the researcher and his interaction in the study can become an extraneous variable itself with a strong influence. This is something that should be avoided in quantitative experimentations. Any personal or subjective interaction with the participants of the experiment or the experiment itself may lead to contaminated results that are unreliable and cannot be well interpreted by future researchers. In a qualitative research model, however, the researcher is a part of the experiment. He may freely interpret the results while having personal involvement in the study. Although still an observer of sorts, this researcher is allowed partiality and can display “empathetic understanding” (Gleshne, Peshkin, 1992, p. 2) to help shape the direction of both the experiment and the hypothesis that develops. These are strong and impacting differences in the designs of research and help lay a foundation of not only how an experiment is processed, but also how the scientific community receives it. Moreover, a researcher must take certain care that he does not implement certain techniques in a research study that would equate the other design. If a qualitative approach is given in a quantitative research experiment and vice versa, it will damage the study irrevocably.
One last difference between the qualitative and quantitative design is the way research is carried out when considering the design that is used. In a quantitative model of research, control is a major factor that enables the experimenter to attain the variables that may be present and manipulate the experiment to consider and execute those variable to an advantage. A qualitative study will not control the factors in that manner, but rather observe participants in a natural setting along with any variables that are involved. An example of this would be a researcher conducting a quantitative research experiment on the effects of learning in a stressful environment among adult males. This experiment would be performed with a controlled group in which a certain number of people are selected with similar aspects in order to conduct an experiment. A hypothesis is constructed before this experiment takes place with the intent of proving that hypothesis. With a qualitative effort of research, a researcher may simply observe a native village and the people who inhabit it to understand behavior. A hypothesis is formed after the research and built upon the observations that took place.
Quantitative and qualitative research designs are both intricate approaches to scientific discovery. They both have many differences in the nature of the research along with the intended results. Responsibility lies with the researcher who must delegate the proper tools to ensure that the design is carried out in its correct form. Despite the empirical distinctions that are between these designs, there is a shared unity in that they both are used to come closer to a discovery and allow for understanding and definition to take place.
References
Davis, S. F., & Smith, R. A. (2009). The Psychologist as Detective. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An
introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Hopkins, W. (2000). Quantitative research design. Retrieved from
http://www.sportsci.org/jour/0001/wghdesign.html.
Patton, M. (2001). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Stevens, M. (2009). Selected qualitative methods. Retrieved from
http://symptomresearch.nih.gov/chapter_7/sec4/cmss4pg1.htm.
Sunday, December 6, 2009
Thursday, September 24, 2009
The Impact of Neurophysiology ©
The Impact of Neurophysiology on Learning
Jeannette Villatoro
BKJ0934A
Professor Susan Robertson
September 07, 2009
The Impact of Neurophysiology on Learning
Learning is a fundamental aspect of life that every human being experiences and in some degree relies on for survival and progression. Learning takes place in a variety of ways and changes in an instant depending on many variables. With the importance of learning being a major interest in psychology, theories of learning have been introduced and continually improved throughout the history of time. Neurophysiology is a remarkable study in learning that focuses on how the brain and body coexist and work together to bring action upon learning. This author will attempt to define and explore neurophysiology, discuss the impact it has on the learning process, and uncover how understanding the nature of neurophysiology can impact the study of psychology in today’s world.
Neurophysiology
Philosophy was rampant centuries ago as many scientists were moved toward this quest of wisdom and intellect (Hartfield, 1998). What many philosophers fumbled upon was the contemplation of how the brain functioned. This led to the intent to prove or disprove the existence of a soul and the correlation between physical presence with psychological motivation. René Descartes was one philosopher who was strikingly thorough and intense with his deliberations of the brain and mind back in the 16th century. The problem, however, was that Descartes had no way to actually study the nervous system. He found himself concentrating on the fascinating statues that were powered and controlled in the Royal Gardens at Saint-Germain and realized that the human body was a complicated mechanical instrument that was similar to a “piece of plumbing” (Carlson, 2005, p. 23). This led to a strong desire to uncover the mystery of the brain and how it relates to the nervous system. With the birth of psychological study, many theorists and psychologists aimed to unearth the dimensions of learning in capacity with the mind. Separation of the mind and body soon became a desired pursuit in psychology (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). What later progressed was an understanding that it is the relationship between the mind and body that made learning capable rather than the severance of the two distinctive elements.
Some particular studies in early physiology and neuroscience propelled this area of psychology to the forefront. One study conducted by early theorist Rene Descartes (Hartfield, 1998) was brought about in response to a psychological inquiry about binocular single vision. Human beings and most other creatures have two eyes; yet see only one object in single vision. How this phenomenon is realized became an interest and Descartes sought answers (Hartfield, 1998). Descartes proposed a “physiological unification of the binocular stimulation in the optic chiasma” (Hartfield, 1998, p. 389). Further along in his study he discovered that these optic stimuli were delivered to separate sides of the brain, which alluded to the gradual study of the physiological nature of the mind and body.
Another great contributor to the science of neurophysiology in the delicate stages of its discovery was physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington. He concentrated his efforts distinctly on the nervous system and carried the study to unique proportions that included the processes that neurons have in the brain. He later was able to discern the functions of certain neurons as well as deliver astounding discovery of “the anatomical concepts of the neuron and synapse” (Eccles, J., 1957. p. 218) and how these particular areas of the brain in relation to one another promotes learning and behavior to abound. Sherrington’s accomplishments sprouted new developments in neurophysiology in a time period that had many limitations on such measures of study.
With the major intellectual donations that such philosophers and physiologists have made throughout history, the study of neurophysiology boomed within the psychological industry and not only tested prior belief systems of the nervous system but also endorsed new development in the area. Neurophysiology, considered a new science of the brain, has since swept through psychology with a great force. The physiology of the nervous system and the connection of this with the theories of learning have stimulated many questions about how the mind and body function in a marriage to promote human progression.
Neurophysiology and Learning
Neurophysiology has been a progressive study in the field of psychology, specifically with learning theories. Essentially, how we learn is not only the way to dissect the workings of the mind and body, but how a person relates to their environment and executes the learning process. How a person learns and how they implement that learning is an extraordinary process that can be affected by external and internal forces; biological and environmental factors.
Many learning theorists continued Descartes’ desire to reach understanding in the physiological aspects of psychology and how we learn. Donald Olding Hebb later developed a theory that inspired the belief that “infants are born with a neural network with random interconnections” (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005, p. 379). Sensory experiences, according to Hebb, cause this neural network to make sense of the connections and become organized in a capacity for interaction with the environment to be successful (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). This offered a major shift in the study of neural science in that it begged to include the important effects of environmental impacts on the study of learning.
Because neurophysiology deals with the atmosphere of the physical body and the internal messages that are transmitted to reach a desired behavior or action, there is a close association with learning. The body itself learns as well as the human being learns in a mental standpoint. The nervous system controls the bodily functions and the brain’s reaction to certain outside influences as well as inside biological needs and occurrences. One study in particular that was conducted on guinea pigs showed how learning can be affected and even ignited by the intensity of synaptic pathways of certain neurons by analyzing the anterior cingulate cortex (McCormick, Connors, Lighthall, Prince, 1985).
Behavioral learning experiments often aim to measure “the model parameters and unobserved cognitive processes” (Prerau, Smith, Eden, Kubota, Yanike, Suzuki, Graybiel, Brown, 2009, p. 1) through continuous recorded observation and binary observation. According to Prerau, et al., “although both types of performance measures are often recorded simultaneously, the two are not used in combination to evaluate learning” (Prerau, et al., 2009, p. 1). This may pose difficulty in discerning the relationship between both continuous and binary observation, however, the experiment uses a state-space model of learning to estimate the likelihood of each behavior separately and combined through an algorithm that approximates expectation maximization (Prerau, et al., 2009). This kind of data collection helps capture relative phenomenon in regard to neurotransmissions and how this affects behavior that is displayed in action.
The central nervous system is a predominant area of concentration in neurophysiology. The nervous system is the network in which messages are transmitted to various parts of the body. Neurotransmitters are chemical messages that respond to an action potentioal that attempts to make something occur within the brain (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). In quintessence, the central nervous system is the entity that controls the interactions between the brain and body. Therefore, there is no wonder that it is a strong influence on neurophysiology. The central nervous system ministers to our ability to learn and act upon the learning that occurs.
The neurotransmitters in the brain are fundamental to behavior and neurophysiology. The body and the conscious have a unique marriage of duality that incorporate physical and mental processes to take place. How one reacts to the environment surrounding them in addition to adapting to an environment that is ever changing is basis on many factors with some being biological in nature. The communication between neurons is an important place to start when trying to discern how the nervous system controls behavior. Neurons have a core function of communicating for a purpose that will “gather sensory information, make plans, and initiate behaviors” (Carlson, 2005, p. 48). This is done through synaptic transmission, which allows messages to be carried by neurotransmitters through terminal buttons. In essence, this is how neurons communicate and is the beginning of the learning process.
Stimulation that occurs in an environment that is dangerous or should be avoided can be learned through behavior. When a person faces such a situation, they have the opportunity to recognize the facts and make an action in response. Moreover, that person will also incur learning that will aid in the evasion of such situations in the future. Learning in itself is a learning experience that can be never-ending. As Carlson states, “learning produces changes in the way we perceive, act, think, and feel” (Carlson, 2005, p. 361).
Motor learning is one of the basic modes of learning and involves changes in the neural circuits that control a person’s movement. Even so, motor learning is guided by sensory stimuli (Carlson, 2005). Relational learning is perhaps the most multifaceted type of learning that has to do with the nervous system, neural communication and a behavioral reaction to stimuli. Therefore, the brain and nervous system are the most intrinsic aspects of learning and behavior in the human body. Damage to these areas will stunt motor skills and can adherently modify behavior and learning. Neurophysiology aims to identify the ways in which the nervous system and brain elicit learning and behavior so that corrections can be made in an adversary circumstance.
Neurons are fascinating entities that connect and transmit messages to allow for behavior to follow. However, environmental objects that one experiences has a stimulating affect that results in a complex pattern of neurons (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). As Donald Hebb purported, these cell assemblies can be changed by our perception and identification of certain objects. Not only do our neurons stimulate behavior and learning from environmental influence, but the environment can most certainly have a an effect on the way neurons function. This theory proposes that learning takes place within us internally as well as externally among the environment in which we find ourselves. And naturally, both scenarios are ever changing and constantly evolving which makes the process of learning complex with a deliverance of new information to be gained frequently among the field of neurophysiology.
The future of Neurophysiology
It is evident that the study of neurophysiology is crucial to the study of psychology. With the vast amount of resources available and the speed in which technology is growing, neurophysiology is moving quickly into the future. When applying the theories of learning to the distinctive characteristics of neuro-based science, the clinical aspect of neurophysiology becomes pronounced to jumpstart the understanding of how the human being learns. According to Jasper Daube, by studying the functions of the nervous system in a clinical setting, we will be able to utilize the information for “diagnostics, intensive care, and intraoperative monitoring” (Daube, J., 2009. p. 1). This allows neurophysiology to not only diagnose and treat disorders but to allow the learning process to continually flourish with the new developments of the nervous system and brain.
Learning has a solid place in the future of neurophysiology. According to Carlson, “Electrical stimulation of circuits within the hippocampal formation can lead to long-term synaptic changes that seem to be among those responsible for learning” (Carlson, 2005, p. 362). This means that induction of long-term potential can bring about future discoveries in the important region of the brian; the temporal lobe.
Society has a major role in the future of neurophysiology. It is a science that is the basis of medical practice and must be nurtured incessantly. The bridge between psychology and the medical aspects of the field blend eloquently with one another when neurophysiology is given proper attention. As Irving Zucker said, “the society’s future and indeed the discipline of physiology depend critically on our ability to adapt, change, and grow” (Zucker, 2008, p.3).
Presently, we utilize measure of study that helps us achieve understanding of neural activity. This kind of knowledge propels neurophysiology into the future. By recording the brain’s metabolic and synaptic activity, we are able to witness increase in activity in certain regions of the brain, metabolic rates, and the chemicals that work to produce physiological changes and subsequently enable learning to occur and behavior to be manifested. Psychology will always introduce a study or theory that shifts the paradigm of how physiology works (Zucker, 2008). The continued effort of neuroscientists and physiologists must direct the attention toward the new approach that these changes present.
The ultimate goal for the future of neurophysiology is to determine the beginning progression of abnormalities in nervous system development in uterus. This could potentially inhibit destructive disorders from causing damage and preventing such abnormalities to occur. Clinicians would be able to diagnose and correct many developmental problems that are troubling to a newborn child with poor nervous system and brain functioning. Although this may be a desired outcome for the study of neurophysiology, there is a long way before such miraculous objectives can be gained.
The beginning of neurophysiology was sparked by a curiosity of how the nervous system works in relation to our thoughts and behaviors. By examining the nervous system and the brain, it was gradually made aware that learning is an ongoing process that is directly influenced by the biological nature of one’s self. Neurophysiology is vibrant with aspects of both science and psychology that coexist for the purpose of identifying causal symptoms of learning and behavior. The human body and mind are as complicated as the conscience and by relishing the idiosyncratic components of each dimension, studies can continue to be useful in the field of neurophysiology and how it impacts the learning process of human beings.
References
Carlson, N. (2005) Foundations of physiological psychology (sixth edition).Boston,
Massachusetts: Pearson Education.
Daube, J. (2003). Basic neurophysiology. Retrieved from
http://www.neurophys.com/Basic_Neurophysiology/.
Eccles, J. (1957). Some aspects of Sherrington's contribution to neurophysiology. Notes
and Records of the Royal Society of London, 12(2), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/530837.
Hartfield, G. (1998). The brain's "new" science: psychology, neurophysiology, and
constraint. Philosophy of Science, 67, Retrieved September 7, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/188682.
Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson, M. (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th
edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
McCormick, D., Connors, B., Lighthall, J., & Prince, D. (1985). Comparative
electrophysiology of pyramidal and sparsely spiny stellate neurons of the neocortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 54(4), 1.
Prerau, M, Smith, A, Eden, U, Kubota, Y, & Yanike, M (2009). Characterizing learning
by simultaneous analysis of continuous and binary measures of performance. Journal of Neuropsychology, 50(5), Retrieved from http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/91251.2008v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=learning&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT.
Zucker, I. (2008). Through the looking glass: The future of physiology. passion,
responsibility and morality in science . The Physiologist, 51(2), Retrieved from http://www.the-aps.org/publications/tphys/2008html/April/81president.htm.
Jeannette,
This is an outstanding paper in all respects. I can think of nothing else to say except that it is my hope you will move on to graduate school. Best of luck!
Jeannette Villatoro
BKJ0934A
Professor Susan Robertson
September 07, 2009
The Impact of Neurophysiology on Learning
Learning is a fundamental aspect of life that every human being experiences and in some degree relies on for survival and progression. Learning takes place in a variety of ways and changes in an instant depending on many variables. With the importance of learning being a major interest in psychology, theories of learning have been introduced and continually improved throughout the history of time. Neurophysiology is a remarkable study in learning that focuses on how the brain and body coexist and work together to bring action upon learning. This author will attempt to define and explore neurophysiology, discuss the impact it has on the learning process, and uncover how understanding the nature of neurophysiology can impact the study of psychology in today’s world.
Neurophysiology
Philosophy was rampant centuries ago as many scientists were moved toward this quest of wisdom and intellect (Hartfield, 1998). What many philosophers fumbled upon was the contemplation of how the brain functioned. This led to the intent to prove or disprove the existence of a soul and the correlation between physical presence with psychological motivation. René Descartes was one philosopher who was strikingly thorough and intense with his deliberations of the brain and mind back in the 16th century. The problem, however, was that Descartes had no way to actually study the nervous system. He found himself concentrating on the fascinating statues that were powered and controlled in the Royal Gardens at Saint-Germain and realized that the human body was a complicated mechanical instrument that was similar to a “piece of plumbing” (Carlson, 2005, p. 23). This led to a strong desire to uncover the mystery of the brain and how it relates to the nervous system. With the birth of psychological study, many theorists and psychologists aimed to unearth the dimensions of learning in capacity with the mind. Separation of the mind and body soon became a desired pursuit in psychology (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). What later progressed was an understanding that it is the relationship between the mind and body that made learning capable rather than the severance of the two distinctive elements.
Some particular studies in early physiology and neuroscience propelled this area of psychology to the forefront. One study conducted by early theorist Rene Descartes (Hartfield, 1998) was brought about in response to a psychological inquiry about binocular single vision. Human beings and most other creatures have two eyes; yet see only one object in single vision. How this phenomenon is realized became an interest and Descartes sought answers (Hartfield, 1998). Descartes proposed a “physiological unification of the binocular stimulation in the optic chiasma” (Hartfield, 1998, p. 389). Further along in his study he discovered that these optic stimuli were delivered to separate sides of the brain, which alluded to the gradual study of the physiological nature of the mind and body.
Another great contributor to the science of neurophysiology in the delicate stages of its discovery was physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington. He concentrated his efforts distinctly on the nervous system and carried the study to unique proportions that included the processes that neurons have in the brain. He later was able to discern the functions of certain neurons as well as deliver astounding discovery of “the anatomical concepts of the neuron and synapse” (Eccles, J., 1957. p. 218) and how these particular areas of the brain in relation to one another promotes learning and behavior to abound. Sherrington’s accomplishments sprouted new developments in neurophysiology in a time period that had many limitations on such measures of study.
With the major intellectual donations that such philosophers and physiologists have made throughout history, the study of neurophysiology boomed within the psychological industry and not only tested prior belief systems of the nervous system but also endorsed new development in the area. Neurophysiology, considered a new science of the brain, has since swept through psychology with a great force. The physiology of the nervous system and the connection of this with the theories of learning have stimulated many questions about how the mind and body function in a marriage to promote human progression.
Neurophysiology and Learning
Neurophysiology has been a progressive study in the field of psychology, specifically with learning theories. Essentially, how we learn is not only the way to dissect the workings of the mind and body, but how a person relates to their environment and executes the learning process. How a person learns and how they implement that learning is an extraordinary process that can be affected by external and internal forces; biological and environmental factors.
Many learning theorists continued Descartes’ desire to reach understanding in the physiological aspects of psychology and how we learn. Donald Olding Hebb later developed a theory that inspired the belief that “infants are born with a neural network with random interconnections” (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005, p. 379). Sensory experiences, according to Hebb, cause this neural network to make sense of the connections and become organized in a capacity for interaction with the environment to be successful (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). This offered a major shift in the study of neural science in that it begged to include the important effects of environmental impacts on the study of learning.
Because neurophysiology deals with the atmosphere of the physical body and the internal messages that are transmitted to reach a desired behavior or action, there is a close association with learning. The body itself learns as well as the human being learns in a mental standpoint. The nervous system controls the bodily functions and the brain’s reaction to certain outside influences as well as inside biological needs and occurrences. One study in particular that was conducted on guinea pigs showed how learning can be affected and even ignited by the intensity of synaptic pathways of certain neurons by analyzing the anterior cingulate cortex (McCormick, Connors, Lighthall, Prince, 1985).
Behavioral learning experiments often aim to measure “the model parameters and unobserved cognitive processes” (Prerau, Smith, Eden, Kubota, Yanike, Suzuki, Graybiel, Brown, 2009, p. 1) through continuous recorded observation and binary observation. According to Prerau, et al., “although both types of performance measures are often recorded simultaneously, the two are not used in combination to evaluate learning” (Prerau, et al., 2009, p. 1). This may pose difficulty in discerning the relationship between both continuous and binary observation, however, the experiment uses a state-space model of learning to estimate the likelihood of each behavior separately and combined through an algorithm that approximates expectation maximization (Prerau, et al., 2009). This kind of data collection helps capture relative phenomenon in regard to neurotransmissions and how this affects behavior that is displayed in action.
The central nervous system is a predominant area of concentration in neurophysiology. The nervous system is the network in which messages are transmitted to various parts of the body. Neurotransmitters are chemical messages that respond to an action potentioal that attempts to make something occur within the brain (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). In quintessence, the central nervous system is the entity that controls the interactions between the brain and body. Therefore, there is no wonder that it is a strong influence on neurophysiology. The central nervous system ministers to our ability to learn and act upon the learning that occurs.
The neurotransmitters in the brain are fundamental to behavior and neurophysiology. The body and the conscious have a unique marriage of duality that incorporate physical and mental processes to take place. How one reacts to the environment surrounding them in addition to adapting to an environment that is ever changing is basis on many factors with some being biological in nature. The communication between neurons is an important place to start when trying to discern how the nervous system controls behavior. Neurons have a core function of communicating for a purpose that will “gather sensory information, make plans, and initiate behaviors” (Carlson, 2005, p. 48). This is done through synaptic transmission, which allows messages to be carried by neurotransmitters through terminal buttons. In essence, this is how neurons communicate and is the beginning of the learning process.
Stimulation that occurs in an environment that is dangerous or should be avoided can be learned through behavior. When a person faces such a situation, they have the opportunity to recognize the facts and make an action in response. Moreover, that person will also incur learning that will aid in the evasion of such situations in the future. Learning in itself is a learning experience that can be never-ending. As Carlson states, “learning produces changes in the way we perceive, act, think, and feel” (Carlson, 2005, p. 361).
Motor learning is one of the basic modes of learning and involves changes in the neural circuits that control a person’s movement. Even so, motor learning is guided by sensory stimuli (Carlson, 2005). Relational learning is perhaps the most multifaceted type of learning that has to do with the nervous system, neural communication and a behavioral reaction to stimuli. Therefore, the brain and nervous system are the most intrinsic aspects of learning and behavior in the human body. Damage to these areas will stunt motor skills and can adherently modify behavior and learning. Neurophysiology aims to identify the ways in which the nervous system and brain elicit learning and behavior so that corrections can be made in an adversary circumstance.
Neurons are fascinating entities that connect and transmit messages to allow for behavior to follow. However, environmental objects that one experiences has a stimulating affect that results in a complex pattern of neurons (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). As Donald Hebb purported, these cell assemblies can be changed by our perception and identification of certain objects. Not only do our neurons stimulate behavior and learning from environmental influence, but the environment can most certainly have a an effect on the way neurons function. This theory proposes that learning takes place within us internally as well as externally among the environment in which we find ourselves. And naturally, both scenarios are ever changing and constantly evolving which makes the process of learning complex with a deliverance of new information to be gained frequently among the field of neurophysiology.
The future of Neurophysiology
It is evident that the study of neurophysiology is crucial to the study of psychology. With the vast amount of resources available and the speed in which technology is growing, neurophysiology is moving quickly into the future. When applying the theories of learning to the distinctive characteristics of neuro-based science, the clinical aspect of neurophysiology becomes pronounced to jumpstart the understanding of how the human being learns. According to Jasper Daube, by studying the functions of the nervous system in a clinical setting, we will be able to utilize the information for “diagnostics, intensive care, and intraoperative monitoring” (Daube, J., 2009. p. 1). This allows neurophysiology to not only diagnose and treat disorders but to allow the learning process to continually flourish with the new developments of the nervous system and brain.
Learning has a solid place in the future of neurophysiology. According to Carlson, “Electrical stimulation of circuits within the hippocampal formation can lead to long-term synaptic changes that seem to be among those responsible for learning” (Carlson, 2005, p. 362). This means that induction of long-term potential can bring about future discoveries in the important region of the brian; the temporal lobe.
Society has a major role in the future of neurophysiology. It is a science that is the basis of medical practice and must be nurtured incessantly. The bridge between psychology and the medical aspects of the field blend eloquently with one another when neurophysiology is given proper attention. As Irving Zucker said, “the society’s future and indeed the discipline of physiology depend critically on our ability to adapt, change, and grow” (Zucker, 2008, p.3).
Presently, we utilize measure of study that helps us achieve understanding of neural activity. This kind of knowledge propels neurophysiology into the future. By recording the brain’s metabolic and synaptic activity, we are able to witness increase in activity in certain regions of the brain, metabolic rates, and the chemicals that work to produce physiological changes and subsequently enable learning to occur and behavior to be manifested. Psychology will always introduce a study or theory that shifts the paradigm of how physiology works (Zucker, 2008). The continued effort of neuroscientists and physiologists must direct the attention toward the new approach that these changes present.
The ultimate goal for the future of neurophysiology is to determine the beginning progression of abnormalities in nervous system development in uterus. This could potentially inhibit destructive disorders from causing damage and preventing such abnormalities to occur. Clinicians would be able to diagnose and correct many developmental problems that are troubling to a newborn child with poor nervous system and brain functioning. Although this may be a desired outcome for the study of neurophysiology, there is a long way before such miraculous objectives can be gained.
The beginning of neurophysiology was sparked by a curiosity of how the nervous system works in relation to our thoughts and behaviors. By examining the nervous system and the brain, it was gradually made aware that learning is an ongoing process that is directly influenced by the biological nature of one’s self. Neurophysiology is vibrant with aspects of both science and psychology that coexist for the purpose of identifying causal symptoms of learning and behavior. The human body and mind are as complicated as the conscience and by relishing the idiosyncratic components of each dimension, studies can continue to be useful in the field of neurophysiology and how it impacts the learning process of human beings.
References
Carlson, N. (2005) Foundations of physiological psychology (sixth edition).Boston,
Massachusetts: Pearson Education.
Daube, J. (2003). Basic neurophysiology. Retrieved from
http://www.neurophys.com/Basic_Neurophysiology/.
Eccles, J. (1957). Some aspects of Sherrington's contribution to neurophysiology. Notes
and Records of the Royal Society of London, 12(2), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/530837.
Hartfield, G. (1998). The brain's "new" science: psychology, neurophysiology, and
constraint. Philosophy of Science, 67, Retrieved September 7, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/188682.
Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson, M. (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th
edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
McCormick, D., Connors, B., Lighthall, J., & Prince, D. (1985). Comparative
electrophysiology of pyramidal and sparsely spiny stellate neurons of the neocortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 54(4), 1.
Prerau, M, Smith, A, Eden, U, Kubota, Y, & Yanike, M (2009). Characterizing learning
by simultaneous analysis of continuous and binary measures of performance. Journal of Neuropsychology, 50(5), Retrieved from http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/91251.2008v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=learning&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT.
Zucker, I. (2008). Through the looking glass: The future of physiology. passion,
responsibility and morality in science . The Physiologist, 51(2), Retrieved from http://www.the-aps.org/publications/tphys/2008html/April/81president.htm.
Jeannette,
This is an outstanding paper in all respects. I can think of nothing else to say except that it is my hope you will move on to graduate school. Best of luck!
Sunday, September 13, 2009
Functionalistic Theory ©
The Importance of the Functionalistic Theory
Jeannette Villatoro
BKJ0934A
Professor Susan Robertson
August 22, 2009
The Importance of the Funcionalistic Theory
Psychology has explored many learning theories that are still present among studies today. One pioneering theory delved into the inner workings of the mind and how it functions in concurrence with the environment. Functionalism battled previous notions of learning in early psychology and has held a strong foundation for many following psychologists and scientists. The main points of the functionalistic theory are the conscience of an organism and how the environment affects that conscience. These components of functionalism were diligently supported and expanded by three significant psychological theorists.
William James has been established as the founder of the functionalistic theory (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). The conscience of an organism was his main focus as he attempted to prove its significance and influence on how an organism ultimately functions in the world. James argued that a conscience not only had a strong purpose, but he also contended that the conscience could be changed in its deliverance as affected by the environment (Thornton, 1982). Behavior of an organism was the main focus of the functionalistic theory and many theorists pursued functionalism and contributed to the theory greatly.
Perhaps one of the most prominent and impacting influences on psychology and the functionalistic theory was Edward L. Thorndike who brought the theory of learning to a much-needed vibrancy. Thorndike’s work revolved around behaviorism and comparative psychology, along with intelligence testing and many more facets not yet fully discovered in psychology during his time (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). Thorndike utilized animal testing to uncover the mysteries of the mind and how conscience and intelligence play a role in the behaviors and actions of an organism. In essence, Thorndike paved the way for future studies in functionalism by explaining behavior and intelligence through animal testing and interpreting the results and applying them to human means.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner is yet another major donor to the theories of learning. Skinner focused intently on behaviorism and how organisms react to their environment (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). This is a very important aspect of the functionalistic theory, as functionalism serves as a measure of how behavior and environmental influences change and shape one’s actions and conscience. Skinner studied the misbehavior of organisms and what causes such things to occur. This is has always been a serious matter in society because it relates to the causal effects of the mind in relation to bad deeds. When crimes are committed or behavior reaches a boiling point, it was originally Skinner who attempted to discover why. Skinner was a major opposition to most psychologists because of his belief that a systematic form of behavior technology can be implemented to radically change the way an organism behaves, and furthermore, Skinner induced that it is completely necessary to eradicate negative behaviors that seemingly surface within every working mind. This was of course inhibiting to the widely believed notion that human beings are “rational, free, and dignified” (Hergehahn, Olson, 2005, p.110). Skinner “discounted the empirical as well as philosophical components of behaviorism” (Thornton, 1982, p.1) in testing elements of human nature that many believed impossible to touch scientifically.
Clark Leonard Hull had just as much authority over the functionalistic theory as the others, yet he brought a more logical structure to the study of behavior. He established harmonizing postulates and theorems to prove the empirical nature of these scientific theories. Unlike other psychologists whom swam in the beginning waters of the functionalistic theory of learning, Hull indeed subscribed to the conception that “empirical observations, supplemented by shrewd conjuncture” (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005, p. 132) was the recipe needed for successful behavioral study. Hull’s contributions were unique and quite necessary because the functionalistic theory concentrated on aspects of psychology that were difficult to prove using standard scientific procedures and empirical examinations. With Hull’s commonsensical systems of theoretical study, functionalism was propelled into the continuum of meaningful psychological exploration.
Functionalism is a fascinating principle of psychology that began in a time in which the study of the mind was almost a mythical pursuit. Physiological psychology and the basic workings of the brain had been tirelessly driven into contemplation among many theorists. This brought about a wonderment of the conscience, how it drives an organism, and if the environment can bring a strong diversity to how that conscience works. With major breakthroughs in behaviorism introduced by the pioneering theorists that lead functionalism into the present time, it is safe to say that the study of the conscience and its relation to behavior will continue to penetrate many psychological studies in the future.
References
Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson, M, (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th
edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Thornton, Edward E. (1982). A transpersonal critique of behaviorism. Journal of
Religion and Health, 21, Retrieved August 28, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27505655.
Jeannette Villatoro
BKJ0934A
Professor Susan Robertson
August 22, 2009
The Importance of the Funcionalistic Theory
Psychology has explored many learning theories that are still present among studies today. One pioneering theory delved into the inner workings of the mind and how it functions in concurrence with the environment. Functionalism battled previous notions of learning in early psychology and has held a strong foundation for many following psychologists and scientists. The main points of the functionalistic theory are the conscience of an organism and how the environment affects that conscience. These components of functionalism were diligently supported and expanded by three significant psychological theorists.
William James has been established as the founder of the functionalistic theory (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). The conscience of an organism was his main focus as he attempted to prove its significance and influence on how an organism ultimately functions in the world. James argued that a conscience not only had a strong purpose, but he also contended that the conscience could be changed in its deliverance as affected by the environment (Thornton, 1982). Behavior of an organism was the main focus of the functionalistic theory and many theorists pursued functionalism and contributed to the theory greatly.
Perhaps one of the most prominent and impacting influences on psychology and the functionalistic theory was Edward L. Thorndike who brought the theory of learning to a much-needed vibrancy. Thorndike’s work revolved around behaviorism and comparative psychology, along with intelligence testing and many more facets not yet fully discovered in psychology during his time (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). Thorndike utilized animal testing to uncover the mysteries of the mind and how conscience and intelligence play a role in the behaviors and actions of an organism. In essence, Thorndike paved the way for future studies in functionalism by explaining behavior and intelligence through animal testing and interpreting the results and applying them to human means.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner is yet another major donor to the theories of learning. Skinner focused intently on behaviorism and how organisms react to their environment (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). This is a very important aspect of the functionalistic theory, as functionalism serves as a measure of how behavior and environmental influences change and shape one’s actions and conscience. Skinner studied the misbehavior of organisms and what causes such things to occur. This is has always been a serious matter in society because it relates to the causal effects of the mind in relation to bad deeds. When crimes are committed or behavior reaches a boiling point, it was originally Skinner who attempted to discover why. Skinner was a major opposition to most psychologists because of his belief that a systematic form of behavior technology can be implemented to radically change the way an organism behaves, and furthermore, Skinner induced that it is completely necessary to eradicate negative behaviors that seemingly surface within every working mind. This was of course inhibiting to the widely believed notion that human beings are “rational, free, and dignified” (Hergehahn, Olson, 2005, p.110). Skinner “discounted the empirical as well as philosophical components of behaviorism” (Thornton, 1982, p.1) in testing elements of human nature that many believed impossible to touch scientifically.
Clark Leonard Hull had just as much authority over the functionalistic theory as the others, yet he brought a more logical structure to the study of behavior. He established harmonizing postulates and theorems to prove the empirical nature of these scientific theories. Unlike other psychologists whom swam in the beginning waters of the functionalistic theory of learning, Hull indeed subscribed to the conception that “empirical observations, supplemented by shrewd conjuncture” (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005, p. 132) was the recipe needed for successful behavioral study. Hull’s contributions were unique and quite necessary because the functionalistic theory concentrated on aspects of psychology that were difficult to prove using standard scientific procedures and empirical examinations. With Hull’s commonsensical systems of theoretical study, functionalism was propelled into the continuum of meaningful psychological exploration.
Functionalism is a fascinating principle of psychology that began in a time in which the study of the mind was almost a mythical pursuit. Physiological psychology and the basic workings of the brain had been tirelessly driven into contemplation among many theorists. This brought about a wonderment of the conscience, how it drives an organism, and if the environment can bring a strong diversity to how that conscience works. With major breakthroughs in behaviorism introduced by the pioneering theorists that lead functionalism into the present time, it is safe to say that the study of the conscience and its relation to behavior will continue to penetrate many psychological studies in the future.
References
Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson, M, (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th
edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Thornton, Edward E. (1982). A transpersonal critique of behaviorism. Journal of
Religion and Health, 21, Retrieved August 28, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27505655.
Tuesday, August 18, 2009
Effects of Neurochemical Production on Alzheimer's Disease
The Effects of Neurochemical Production on Alzheimer’s Disease
Jeannette Villatoro
PYJ0919A
Dr. Trent Nguyen
July 30, 2009
The Effects of Neurochemical Production on Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease is a serious affliction that affects millions of people over the age of 50. One of the onsets of Alzheimer’s disease is a chemical imbalance within the brain. Such imbalances may occur from overproduction of proteins and pose a major concern for the health and well being of the elderly. One with Alzheimer’s disease may likely develop depression because of the detrimental symptoms of their disease. Many psychologists contend that depression symptoms among patients with Alzheimer’s generally have more serious and adverse effects as the progression and cohesion of these two disorders create a harmful infusion. This author will attempt to interpret research on the issue of Alzheimer’s disease in relation to chemical imbalances, what studies have been conducted to support this theory of the cause of Alzheimer’s, and how minimizing the onset of chemical imbalances has an effect on the overall disease and depressive symptoms that can occur as well.
Neurochemical Production and Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease can be described as a deterioration of the brain functioning. Loss of memory ensues along with many emotional and behavioral problems that can undoubtedly arise. This disease is most common in adults that are between the ages of 60 and 90, but this unforgiving disease has shown signs of progression in even younger seniors (ADEAR, 2009). According to ADEAR (Alzheimer’s Education and Referral Center), “damage to the brain begins as many as 10 to 20 years before any problems are evident” (ADEAR, 2009, p.1). Cognition is affected in the patient with less coherent ability in memory, reasoning, communicating, and understanding. When cognitive abilities do return to the patient even mildly, depression may become induced because of the recognition of the loss of cognition (ADEAR, 2009).
The cause of Alzheimer’s disease has been long pursued and not yet discovered in its entirety. ADEAR states that “scientists don’t yet fully understand what causes Alzheimer’s disease, but it is clear that it develops because of a complex series of events that take place in the brain over a long period of time” (ADEAR, 2009, p. 1). Research that shows certain build up of proteins can possibly be the foremost contributing cause of the onset of Alzheimer’s disease and it is to date the most promising explanation of the disease. Abnormal neurochemical production in the brain and build up of proteins such as beta-amyloid are connected to Alzheimer’s disease and may be the closest clues to finding the reasoning for the inception of Alzheimer’s (Bailer, Liu, Smith, Isaacson, 2000). It is not yet apparent the deliberate cause of Alzheimer’s but chemical imbalances and brain abnormalities that are connected to the disease are plentiful. Some studies have suggested that the mutation of the APP gene produce familial Alzheimer’s disease (Carlson, 2005). Carlson surmises that certain mutations of presenilin genes also cause “the defective long form of beta-amyloid to be produced” (Carlson, 2005, p. 453) which can be a definite precursor to the disease. Along with the tangles that can occur in the brain “in an area called the entorhinal cortex, plaques form in other areas causing the neurons to work less efficiently” (ADEAR, 2009, p.1).
In one study on biometrics, it was concluded by Bailer et al. that “nerve growth factor (NGF) is a target-derived protein that promotes the survival of the same nerve cells in the mature nervous system that atrophy in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease” (cited from Bailer et al., 2000, p. 936). According to Bailer et al., the exact action of this chemical is yet unclear but it is believed to play a key role “in the synthesis and neurochemicals and cytoskeletal proteins” (cited from Bailer et al., 2000, p. 936). NGF promotes survival among the neurons that lose functioning and deteriorate when Alzheimer’s becomes evident and because of this, the same chemical is used in treating the disorder and to repair the damaged cells and salvage the dying nerves (Bailer et al., 2000).
This study focused on the biochemical measurement of neurochemical production in the brain. Because the neurochemical production and the morphological assessment of the number of axons cannot be done on the same organism, the independent measurements of neurotransmitter activity and axon production were made separately in each of the experimental groups (Bailer et al., 2000). In a particular study on NFG and its effects on such diseases as Alzheimer’s, adult rats were given NFG through a time-released pumping apparatus through intracranial infusion. The results were quite astounding in that not only did the rats show an increase in production of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, but also had an increase in the number of axons. The study then compared the normal average neurochemical production per axon with the various experimental groups consisting of those affects with neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and those who were adherently healthy (Bailer et al., 2000). The proven results of this study as outlined is a major improvement on the production, repair, and distribution of neural activity within the brain that particularly causes such diseases as Alzheimer’s to alleviate normal functioning in the elderly. This supports the conception that norepinphrine plays a significant role in retroactive allocation of proper nerve health. The closer these studies come to narrowing down the intricate workings of the neurotransmitters and various chemicals, the sooner a cause for Alzheimer’s as well as a subsequent cure can be found.
The chemical breakdown of proteins is a significant process within the brain. Particularly with Alzheimer’s disease, there is evidence that protein build up defies the axons to fire properly and helps aid in degeneration in Alzheimer’s patients. The Alzheimer’s Association concurs that plaques are “abnormal clusters of protein fragments that build up between nerve cells” (Alzheimer’s Association, 2009. p. 1). One study clearly focused on the similarities of Alzheimer’s patients and the amount of tangles and protein or plaque build up that was accumulated. This triggered research to determine what impact this has on the symptoms of the disease. In this study, most patients showed developed abnormalities within the brain structure and synapses transmissions. This is a huge development in the discovery of a potential treatment for Alzheimer’s in that a major percentage of patients suffer from the same chemical imbalances within the brain. It was evident in this study of 306 subjects that 258 had abnormal forms of beta-amyloid proteins and tau proteins (Bailer et al., 2000). Excessive amounts of beta-amyloid protein are thought to be responsible for the disease. Therefore, steps in prevention must focus on the same deformities within the brain that produces these toxic amounts of protein build-up.
Plaque build-up promotes nerve cells to decay and die. As noted by the Alzheimer’s Association, “dead or dying nerve cells contain tangles, which are made up of twisted strands of another protein” (Alzheimer’s Association, 2009, p. 1). In one particular study, the tangles within the interhinal cortex also showed major effect on the development of Alzheimer’s. It was concluded that several of the subjects studied in the experiment showed entanglements in addition to plaque build-up. The tangles caused abnormal neurochemical production and overproduction of serotonine in the brains of patients (Bailer et al., 2000) and the number of axons and transmissions within the neural cavity were greatly inhibited. Widespread cell death will indubitably shrink the brain considerably and also damage tissue. Consequently, most of the cortex will be damaged and advanced Alzheimer’s disease will ensue. This will mean irreparable injury to the patient’s brain functioning and severely reduced cognitive abilities. In a study of 101 males with Alzheimer’s between the ages of 56 and 72 years of age, brain PH was shown to have significant decrease compared to young male adults between the ages of 22 and 36. It was believed that a decaying exponential was at fault for the decrease in PH balance due to the plaques and tangles in the brain (Bailer et al., 2000).
Because evidence of the abnormalities seem to be present long before the onset of Alzheimer’s disease, it is important to study those unaffected by the disease in preferably earlier ages of life span. If the excessive protein build-up shows among middle-aged people, the development of brain damage that causes Alzheimer’s can be followed and understood more properly. The point in which Alzheimer’s is officially triggered has unfortunately not yet been discovered; therefore the linkage to symptoms can be explained but not the point of ignition.
Effects of Depression on Alzheimer’s Disease
Many studies have delved into the depths of Alzheimer’s disease and what causes the devastating symptoms. ADEAR states, “common behavioral symptoms of AD include sleeplessness, agitation, wandering, anxiety, anger, and depression. Scientists are learning why these symptoms occur and are studying new treatments—drug and non-drug—to manage them. Treating behavioral symptoms often makes people with AD more comfortable and makes their care easier for caregivers” (ADEAR, 2009, p. 2).
Depression and Alzheimer’s have a major relationship. Depression is not only a side effect of Alzheimer’s; it is also a potential cause for the dementia that occurs. One study focused on the depressive disorder seen in many Alzheimer’s patients not in current circumstances, but from a lifetime perspective. Those patients that experienced long bouts of depression throughout their lives had a more powerful tendency to develop Alzheimer’s (Berger, Bodian, Hirsch, 1996).
Some studies have attempted to integrate the care giving support from families with the depressive symptoms that occur. Although depression is commonly one of the major effects of Alzheimer’s due to chemical imbalances within the brain, depression can also occur when family support is lacking. Depression can occur for many reasons and usually is a result of brain abnormalities as well as environmental issues. Because the causal effects of Alzheimer’s are difficult to understand, we can determine some environmental causes from research. As Berger et al. explains, data from these studies “are obtained by first finding a group of affected person, that is, persons having or having had the disease; such persons are customarily called probands. Their families are said to be ascertained.” (Berger et al., p. 831). One study in particular focused on the particulars of family roles with Alzheimer’s patients. The study in question pertained in this article emphasizes the findings of family participation in Alzheimer’s disease and the consequences of lack of support.
The effects on the families are just as significant as the effects on the patients. Because family support is relevant to the patient’s well being and how they cope with the disease, it is important to study the family in relevance to the onset of Alzheimer’s. Berger et al. shows that that this particular research also highlighted the “age-specific and lifetime risks of a late on-set disease when families are ascertained through probands” (Berger et al., 1996, p. 833). Family support is imperative for Alzheimer’s disease to be handled, and most patients unfortunately lack this support. Most family members do not know how to handle the onset of Alzheimer’s and tend to leave the patient in the hands of care giving facilities. In a study of more than 130 Alzheimer’s patients and their respective families, persons from about 83 families out of the 132 studied admitted to either losing interest in the care of the Alzheimer’s patient, being stressed about the disease, showing lack of support for the patient, or backing away due to a deficiency in knowledge or understanding of the disease. Those people from 68 out of those 83 families said that they would more likely be a significant support in the life of the Alzheimer’s patient if ongoing counseling and support was given to the family (Berger et al., p. 833). This is a major complication in the life of a patient with Alzheimer’s, as familiarity and comfort are essential elements as the onset of the disease becomes more present. Having a deficiency in these areas of life have been proven to create a more depressed attitude within the patient and therefore enable the disease to progress more rapidly (Berger et al., 1996, p. 833). Severe Alzheimer’s disease may be sadly immanent, with depreciated cognitive ability, memory and normal brain functioning. With advanced onset of Alzheimer’s, death is a forthcoming tragedy. It is significant to deter depression from becoming a more aggressive suitor of the disease.
One of the underlying factors of lack of family support shows that depression most likely becomes evident. This is a major concern for Alzheimer’s patients due to the effect depression has on the brain. Carlson gives the information that “depression is caused by insufficient activity of monoaminergic neurons” (Carlson, 2005, p. 479). Treatment is available for depression with much success, but the difficulty in treating depression in Alzheimer’s patients is that the effects of the drugs also have negative effects on the disease and the symptoms that are caused by the disease (Carlson, 2005). The treatments that work for depression are primarily through drugs that affect monoamines such as norepinephrine and serotonin. This interferes with the neurochemical production for Alzheimer’s as well as inhibiting the drug treatments that act as an agonist for the synapses that affect the brain in Alzheimer’s patients. Because of this, it is important to prevent depression by allowing support to the patient to be strong. The chemical imbalances that cause depression are difficult to treat, but the environmental occurrences that enable depression to enrapture an Alzheimer’s patient can definitely be controlled.
Alzheimer’s disease is a fascinating form of dementia that is initiated by several brain abnormalities and chemical dysfunctions that occur within the life span of a young adult to an elderly individual. Alzheimer’s disease currently has no cure and very limited treatment possibilities, and it ultimately causes death. Many studies have been done to deliberately find the causes of Alzheimer’s disease and although the studies are not conclusive, there have been many breakthroughs in research to date. Studies have shown incredibly high percentages of Alzheimer’s disease in patients with reoccurring bouts of depressive disorder. The build-up of certain proteins along with entanglements in the interhinal cortex is proven to produce Alzheimer’s. Yet the actual igniting factors of the disease are yet to be established. Many symptoms of this disease prove to be distressing for the patient and family alike. Depression is a major symptom of Alzheimer’s along with being a possible cause for the disease. By understanding the link between depression and Alzheimer’s, and uncovering site attractions within the brain that are most affected by harmful plaque accumulation and nerve cell entanglements, scientists can indeed begin a path of discovery that can better treat and possibly prevent Alzheimer’s from occurring.
References
ADEAR, (2009). Alzheimer's disease fact sheet. Retrieved July 30, 2009, from National
Institute on Aging Web site: http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/adfact.htm.
Alzheimer's Association, (2009). Plaques and tangles. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from
Alzheimer's Association Web site: http://www.alz.org/brain/10.asp.
Bailer, A., Liu, S., Smith, M., Isaacson, L., (2000). Statistical comparison of axon-
scaled neurochemical production. International Biometric Society, 56, Retrieved August 1, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2676945.
This article pertains to a study that was introduced on the neurochemical production and how the buildup of proteins can be considered a huge cause of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. This study performed research on adult lab rats that ultimately proved that the chemical NGF helped to repair dying nerves. This study also focused on experimental groups with Alzheimer’s diseases and those without it to determine the normal neurochemical productions in relation to axons to determine the normal ration as compared to the experiment on the rats. The target population was the elderly susceptible to Alzheimer’s disease. This article was instrumental in discovering the effects of neurochemical production and how it supports treatment of damage to nerves that cause the symptoms and deterioration one faces in Alzheimer’s disease.
Berger, A., Bodian, C., Hirsch, W., (1996). On estimating incidence rates of diseases
with delayed onset using biased samples. Journal of the American Statistical association, 91, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2291678.
This article focuses solely on the rates of incidents of Alzheimer’s using onset techniques. Specific affected groups were sampled to research effects of the disease on patients. The focus of this article was mainly the deterioration by diseases that accumulate later in life as opposed to those diseases, which are born to persons. This article also deals with research on heredity of the disease.
Carlson, N. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th edition). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Jeannette Villatoro
PYJ0919A
Dr. Trent Nguyen
July 30, 2009
The Effects of Neurochemical Production on Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease is a serious affliction that affects millions of people over the age of 50. One of the onsets of Alzheimer’s disease is a chemical imbalance within the brain. Such imbalances may occur from overproduction of proteins and pose a major concern for the health and well being of the elderly. One with Alzheimer’s disease may likely develop depression because of the detrimental symptoms of their disease. Many psychologists contend that depression symptoms among patients with Alzheimer’s generally have more serious and adverse effects as the progression and cohesion of these two disorders create a harmful infusion. This author will attempt to interpret research on the issue of Alzheimer’s disease in relation to chemical imbalances, what studies have been conducted to support this theory of the cause of Alzheimer’s, and how minimizing the onset of chemical imbalances has an effect on the overall disease and depressive symptoms that can occur as well.
Neurochemical Production and Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease can be described as a deterioration of the brain functioning. Loss of memory ensues along with many emotional and behavioral problems that can undoubtedly arise. This disease is most common in adults that are between the ages of 60 and 90, but this unforgiving disease has shown signs of progression in even younger seniors (ADEAR, 2009). According to ADEAR (Alzheimer’s Education and Referral Center), “damage to the brain begins as many as 10 to 20 years before any problems are evident” (ADEAR, 2009, p.1). Cognition is affected in the patient with less coherent ability in memory, reasoning, communicating, and understanding. When cognitive abilities do return to the patient even mildly, depression may become induced because of the recognition of the loss of cognition (ADEAR, 2009).
The cause of Alzheimer’s disease has been long pursued and not yet discovered in its entirety. ADEAR states that “scientists don’t yet fully understand what causes Alzheimer’s disease, but it is clear that it develops because of a complex series of events that take place in the brain over a long period of time” (ADEAR, 2009, p. 1). Research that shows certain build up of proteins can possibly be the foremost contributing cause of the onset of Alzheimer’s disease and it is to date the most promising explanation of the disease. Abnormal neurochemical production in the brain and build up of proteins such as beta-amyloid are connected to Alzheimer’s disease and may be the closest clues to finding the reasoning for the inception of Alzheimer’s (Bailer, Liu, Smith, Isaacson, 2000). It is not yet apparent the deliberate cause of Alzheimer’s but chemical imbalances and brain abnormalities that are connected to the disease are plentiful. Some studies have suggested that the mutation of the APP gene produce familial Alzheimer’s disease (Carlson, 2005). Carlson surmises that certain mutations of presenilin genes also cause “the defective long form of beta-amyloid to be produced” (Carlson, 2005, p. 453) which can be a definite precursor to the disease. Along with the tangles that can occur in the brain “in an area called the entorhinal cortex, plaques form in other areas causing the neurons to work less efficiently” (ADEAR, 2009, p.1).
In one study on biometrics, it was concluded by Bailer et al. that “nerve growth factor (NGF) is a target-derived protein that promotes the survival of the same nerve cells in the mature nervous system that atrophy in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease” (cited from Bailer et al., 2000, p. 936). According to Bailer et al., the exact action of this chemical is yet unclear but it is believed to play a key role “in the synthesis and neurochemicals and cytoskeletal proteins” (cited from Bailer et al., 2000, p. 936). NGF promotes survival among the neurons that lose functioning and deteriorate when Alzheimer’s becomes evident and because of this, the same chemical is used in treating the disorder and to repair the damaged cells and salvage the dying nerves (Bailer et al., 2000).
This study focused on the biochemical measurement of neurochemical production in the brain. Because the neurochemical production and the morphological assessment of the number of axons cannot be done on the same organism, the independent measurements of neurotransmitter activity and axon production were made separately in each of the experimental groups (Bailer et al., 2000). In a particular study on NFG and its effects on such diseases as Alzheimer’s, adult rats were given NFG through a time-released pumping apparatus through intracranial infusion. The results were quite astounding in that not only did the rats show an increase in production of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, but also had an increase in the number of axons. The study then compared the normal average neurochemical production per axon with the various experimental groups consisting of those affects with neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and those who were adherently healthy (Bailer et al., 2000). The proven results of this study as outlined is a major improvement on the production, repair, and distribution of neural activity within the brain that particularly causes such diseases as Alzheimer’s to alleviate normal functioning in the elderly. This supports the conception that norepinphrine plays a significant role in retroactive allocation of proper nerve health. The closer these studies come to narrowing down the intricate workings of the neurotransmitters and various chemicals, the sooner a cause for Alzheimer’s as well as a subsequent cure can be found.
The chemical breakdown of proteins is a significant process within the brain. Particularly with Alzheimer’s disease, there is evidence that protein build up defies the axons to fire properly and helps aid in degeneration in Alzheimer’s patients. The Alzheimer’s Association concurs that plaques are “abnormal clusters of protein fragments that build up between nerve cells” (Alzheimer’s Association, 2009. p. 1). One study clearly focused on the similarities of Alzheimer’s patients and the amount of tangles and protein or plaque build up that was accumulated. This triggered research to determine what impact this has on the symptoms of the disease. In this study, most patients showed developed abnormalities within the brain structure and synapses transmissions. This is a huge development in the discovery of a potential treatment for Alzheimer’s in that a major percentage of patients suffer from the same chemical imbalances within the brain. It was evident in this study of 306 subjects that 258 had abnormal forms of beta-amyloid proteins and tau proteins (Bailer et al., 2000). Excessive amounts of beta-amyloid protein are thought to be responsible for the disease. Therefore, steps in prevention must focus on the same deformities within the brain that produces these toxic amounts of protein build-up.
Plaque build-up promotes nerve cells to decay and die. As noted by the Alzheimer’s Association, “dead or dying nerve cells contain tangles, which are made up of twisted strands of another protein” (Alzheimer’s Association, 2009, p. 1). In one particular study, the tangles within the interhinal cortex also showed major effect on the development of Alzheimer’s. It was concluded that several of the subjects studied in the experiment showed entanglements in addition to plaque build-up. The tangles caused abnormal neurochemical production and overproduction of serotonine in the brains of patients (Bailer et al., 2000) and the number of axons and transmissions within the neural cavity were greatly inhibited. Widespread cell death will indubitably shrink the brain considerably and also damage tissue. Consequently, most of the cortex will be damaged and advanced Alzheimer’s disease will ensue. This will mean irreparable injury to the patient’s brain functioning and severely reduced cognitive abilities. In a study of 101 males with Alzheimer’s between the ages of 56 and 72 years of age, brain PH was shown to have significant decrease compared to young male adults between the ages of 22 and 36. It was believed that a decaying exponential was at fault for the decrease in PH balance due to the plaques and tangles in the brain (Bailer et al., 2000).
Because evidence of the abnormalities seem to be present long before the onset of Alzheimer’s disease, it is important to study those unaffected by the disease in preferably earlier ages of life span. If the excessive protein build-up shows among middle-aged people, the development of brain damage that causes Alzheimer’s can be followed and understood more properly. The point in which Alzheimer’s is officially triggered has unfortunately not yet been discovered; therefore the linkage to symptoms can be explained but not the point of ignition.
Effects of Depression on Alzheimer’s Disease
Many studies have delved into the depths of Alzheimer’s disease and what causes the devastating symptoms. ADEAR states, “common behavioral symptoms of AD include sleeplessness, agitation, wandering, anxiety, anger, and depression. Scientists are learning why these symptoms occur and are studying new treatments—drug and non-drug—to manage them. Treating behavioral symptoms often makes people with AD more comfortable and makes their care easier for caregivers” (ADEAR, 2009, p. 2).
Depression and Alzheimer’s have a major relationship. Depression is not only a side effect of Alzheimer’s; it is also a potential cause for the dementia that occurs. One study focused on the depressive disorder seen in many Alzheimer’s patients not in current circumstances, but from a lifetime perspective. Those patients that experienced long bouts of depression throughout their lives had a more powerful tendency to develop Alzheimer’s (Berger, Bodian, Hirsch, 1996).
Some studies have attempted to integrate the care giving support from families with the depressive symptoms that occur. Although depression is commonly one of the major effects of Alzheimer’s due to chemical imbalances within the brain, depression can also occur when family support is lacking. Depression can occur for many reasons and usually is a result of brain abnormalities as well as environmental issues. Because the causal effects of Alzheimer’s are difficult to understand, we can determine some environmental causes from research. As Berger et al. explains, data from these studies “are obtained by first finding a group of affected person, that is, persons having or having had the disease; such persons are customarily called probands. Their families are said to be ascertained.” (Berger et al., p. 831). One study in particular focused on the particulars of family roles with Alzheimer’s patients. The study in question pertained in this article emphasizes the findings of family participation in Alzheimer’s disease and the consequences of lack of support.
The effects on the families are just as significant as the effects on the patients. Because family support is relevant to the patient’s well being and how they cope with the disease, it is important to study the family in relevance to the onset of Alzheimer’s. Berger et al. shows that that this particular research also highlighted the “age-specific and lifetime risks of a late on-set disease when families are ascertained through probands” (Berger et al., 1996, p. 833). Family support is imperative for Alzheimer’s disease to be handled, and most patients unfortunately lack this support. Most family members do not know how to handle the onset of Alzheimer’s and tend to leave the patient in the hands of care giving facilities. In a study of more than 130 Alzheimer’s patients and their respective families, persons from about 83 families out of the 132 studied admitted to either losing interest in the care of the Alzheimer’s patient, being stressed about the disease, showing lack of support for the patient, or backing away due to a deficiency in knowledge or understanding of the disease. Those people from 68 out of those 83 families said that they would more likely be a significant support in the life of the Alzheimer’s patient if ongoing counseling and support was given to the family (Berger et al., p. 833). This is a major complication in the life of a patient with Alzheimer’s, as familiarity and comfort are essential elements as the onset of the disease becomes more present. Having a deficiency in these areas of life have been proven to create a more depressed attitude within the patient and therefore enable the disease to progress more rapidly (Berger et al., 1996, p. 833). Severe Alzheimer’s disease may be sadly immanent, with depreciated cognitive ability, memory and normal brain functioning. With advanced onset of Alzheimer’s, death is a forthcoming tragedy. It is significant to deter depression from becoming a more aggressive suitor of the disease.
One of the underlying factors of lack of family support shows that depression most likely becomes evident. This is a major concern for Alzheimer’s patients due to the effect depression has on the brain. Carlson gives the information that “depression is caused by insufficient activity of monoaminergic neurons” (Carlson, 2005, p. 479). Treatment is available for depression with much success, but the difficulty in treating depression in Alzheimer’s patients is that the effects of the drugs also have negative effects on the disease and the symptoms that are caused by the disease (Carlson, 2005). The treatments that work for depression are primarily through drugs that affect monoamines such as norepinephrine and serotonin. This interferes with the neurochemical production for Alzheimer’s as well as inhibiting the drug treatments that act as an agonist for the synapses that affect the brain in Alzheimer’s patients. Because of this, it is important to prevent depression by allowing support to the patient to be strong. The chemical imbalances that cause depression are difficult to treat, but the environmental occurrences that enable depression to enrapture an Alzheimer’s patient can definitely be controlled.
Alzheimer’s disease is a fascinating form of dementia that is initiated by several brain abnormalities and chemical dysfunctions that occur within the life span of a young adult to an elderly individual. Alzheimer’s disease currently has no cure and very limited treatment possibilities, and it ultimately causes death. Many studies have been done to deliberately find the causes of Alzheimer’s disease and although the studies are not conclusive, there have been many breakthroughs in research to date. Studies have shown incredibly high percentages of Alzheimer’s disease in patients with reoccurring bouts of depressive disorder. The build-up of certain proteins along with entanglements in the interhinal cortex is proven to produce Alzheimer’s. Yet the actual igniting factors of the disease are yet to be established. Many symptoms of this disease prove to be distressing for the patient and family alike. Depression is a major symptom of Alzheimer’s along with being a possible cause for the disease. By understanding the link between depression and Alzheimer’s, and uncovering site attractions within the brain that are most affected by harmful plaque accumulation and nerve cell entanglements, scientists can indeed begin a path of discovery that can better treat and possibly prevent Alzheimer’s from occurring.
References
ADEAR, (2009). Alzheimer's disease fact sheet. Retrieved July 30, 2009, from National
Institute on Aging Web site: http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/adfact.htm.
Alzheimer's Association, (2009). Plaques and tangles. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from
Alzheimer's Association Web site: http://www.alz.org/brain/10.asp.
Bailer, A., Liu, S., Smith, M., Isaacson, L., (2000). Statistical comparison of axon-
scaled neurochemical production. International Biometric Society, 56, Retrieved August 1, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2676945.
This article pertains to a study that was introduced on the neurochemical production and how the buildup of proteins can be considered a huge cause of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. This study performed research on adult lab rats that ultimately proved that the chemical NGF helped to repair dying nerves. This study also focused on experimental groups with Alzheimer’s diseases and those without it to determine the normal neurochemical productions in relation to axons to determine the normal ration as compared to the experiment on the rats. The target population was the elderly susceptible to Alzheimer’s disease. This article was instrumental in discovering the effects of neurochemical production and how it supports treatment of damage to nerves that cause the symptoms and deterioration one faces in Alzheimer’s disease.
Berger, A., Bodian, C., Hirsch, W., (1996). On estimating incidence rates of diseases
with delayed onset using biased samples. Journal of the American Statistical association, 91, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2291678.
This article focuses solely on the rates of incidents of Alzheimer’s using onset techniques. Specific affected groups were sampled to research effects of the disease on patients. The focus of this article was mainly the deterioration by diseases that accumulate later in life as opposed to those diseases, which are born to persons. This article also deals with research on heredity of the disease.
Carlson, N. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th edition). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Tuesday, June 23, 2009
Secret Garden ©
Secret Garden
the secret garden of my mind
the weeds do flourish
the roses die.
a winding vine with brown decay
withering in such dismay
the putrid stench of lost regret
the aching heart
shall not forget.
and thus at midnight
ghost birds sing
a wreched song of misery.
skeleton butterflies
fluttering fierce
soil so damp and
water so scarce .
the secret garden of my mind
no sacrid beauty
you will find
just death and pain
and backwards thoughts
where weeds are planted
in cracking pots.
By Jeannette Villatoro ©
the secret garden of my mind
the weeds do flourish
the roses die.
a winding vine with brown decay
withering in such dismay
the putrid stench of lost regret
the aching heart
shall not forget.
and thus at midnight
ghost birds sing
a wreched song of misery.
skeleton butterflies
fluttering fierce
soil so damp and
water so scarce .
the secret garden of my mind
no sacrid beauty
you will find
just death and pain
and backwards thoughts
where weeds are planted
in cracking pots.
By Jeannette Villatoro ©
Tuesday, May 12, 2009
Gender Identity: Innate or Culturally Induced?
We tend to think that gender identity is an innate observation. However, our beliefs and preconceived ideas of what a gender should possess is seemingly stemmed from cultural influence. There is no question about the physiological differences between genders, but the actual measures in which we expect certain behaviors and attitudes are more complicated and are abundant in the social spectrum of life.
Men are seemingly anticipated to be strong, assertive, and aggressive. Women are thought to be soft, meek, and more nurturing. These may have biological truths to them, but it is certainly worthwhile to explore the impact that culture has on these acuities. One important factor to consider is that gender identity has certainly fluctuated through history. There was a time in which only men were expected to work and women raise the children. It has been evident that these roles have changed in some households or expanded to inhabit more equality among them. And because sexual preferences have grown to include same-sex relationships, many genders have gone to the extreme of taking up the inspired characteristics of the opposite gender. This does not necessarily bring concern that these attributes of gender identity are the cause of maladaptive behavior (Sarason, I., Sarason, B., 2002).
When a little girl is labeled a tomboy and enjoys more masculine activities and when a young man denounces sports for theatre and creative arts, are they considered to be robbing themselves of their predestined gender identities? Or are they simply following their intrinsic desires to flourish and be successful in what they are good at? It has become more apparent through psychological studies that genders indeed possess certain qualities and characteristics, but the onset of these factors are strongly weighted by culture and upbringing (Sarason, I., Sarason, B., 2002). A child displaying the so-called behavior of the opposite gender may adapt more gender appropriate attitudes later in life. And it is also important to note that each gender is specifically prone to the same qualities of the other gender, whether it be in less evident forms or strong perpetuations.
Culture is a strong determinant in gender identity and social aspects of life will continue to attempt to modify what gender-specific traits are relevant. But psychology dares to prove that although there are simple roles in biological and behavioral characteristics, the magic of individuality always motivates continual changes that beguile the study of human behavior.
References
Sarason, I., Sarason, B. (2002). Abnormal Psychology: The problem of maladaptive behavior (10th edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Eduation.
Men are seemingly anticipated to be strong, assertive, and aggressive. Women are thought to be soft, meek, and more nurturing. These may have biological truths to them, but it is certainly worthwhile to explore the impact that culture has on these acuities. One important factor to consider is that gender identity has certainly fluctuated through history. There was a time in which only men were expected to work and women raise the children. It has been evident that these roles have changed in some households or expanded to inhabit more equality among them. And because sexual preferences have grown to include same-sex relationships, many genders have gone to the extreme of taking up the inspired characteristics of the opposite gender. This does not necessarily bring concern that these attributes of gender identity are the cause of maladaptive behavior (Sarason, I., Sarason, B., 2002).
When a little girl is labeled a tomboy and enjoys more masculine activities and when a young man denounces sports for theatre and creative arts, are they considered to be robbing themselves of their predestined gender identities? Or are they simply following their intrinsic desires to flourish and be successful in what they are good at? It has become more apparent through psychological studies that genders indeed possess certain qualities and characteristics, but the onset of these factors are strongly weighted by culture and upbringing (Sarason, I., Sarason, B., 2002). A child displaying the so-called behavior of the opposite gender may adapt more gender appropriate attitudes later in life. And it is also important to note that each gender is specifically prone to the same qualities of the other gender, whether it be in less evident forms or strong perpetuations.
Culture is a strong determinant in gender identity and social aspects of life will continue to attempt to modify what gender-specific traits are relevant. But psychology dares to prove that although there are simple roles in biological and behavioral characteristics, the magic of individuality always motivates continual changes that beguile the study of human behavior.
References
Sarason, I., Sarason, B. (2002). Abnormal Psychology: The problem of maladaptive behavior (10th edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Eduation.
Friday, May 8, 2009
Marshmallow Streets and Worm Lips - By Celina Villatoro
"This is an essay my daughter wrote for a contest that wins a trip to disneyland for her family and a $2500 cash prize donated to her school. I am so proud of her for this essay! I think she has a good chance of winning! She definitely has mommy's writing talent ;)"
Change My World Essay
Written by: Celina Villatoro
Age 7
1st grade – Mrs. Naylor
Sand Springs Elementary
Layton, Ut
Marshmallow Streets and Worm Lips by: Celina Villatoro
If I could change anything about the world it would definitely be that nobody would cry anymore. There wouldn’t be any more reasons to cry and no one would be sad. This is a great idea and really needs to be done because crying is bad for us! First of all, we lose water when we cry. Our bodies are made up of a whopping 75 percent of water. When we cry tears, we lose some water and our bodies become sad just like our hearts. Next in line is the fact that tears have salt in them and when they fall down our cheeks they kind of burn them a little and make our cheeks red. This is really embarrassing because people will think we are wearing blush makeup. And also crying makes us sad so I think we might even not live as long if we were always happy. I am happy all the time mostly because my mommy and daddy and sisters and brother loves me and we laugh and have fun all the time. My dogs and my hamster love me too. This makes me happy but sometimes I hurt myself when I fall on my bike and sometimes my feelings get hurt so I cry and this is really bad for my heart and body and even my soul. So we must stop this from happening soon! First we have to figure out just why people cry. Mostly because they are sad or hurt. So we have to get rid of sad things and hurtful things. For instance if someone falls off their bike like I do sometimes then we have to make the streets softer so it won’t hurt. Like maybe make sidewalks and streets made out of marshmallows! And I know this would make bikes and cars sink a little so we would have to make bike and car tires made out of soft cotton. That would be great. Then we have to make people stop saying mean things to others. If a kid tries to make fun of another kid then his lips would turn into worms and he can’t talk! Don’t worry because his lips would turn back to normal in 12 seconds but that would totally freak him out and I bet you he would never try to make fun of a kid or say mean things again. Also there are kids who are hungry and have no place to sleep in this world. I would bring them all to my house. I have enough room I think but if not I can ask my mom to build extra rooms and I am sure she will do it for me because usually she can’t say no if I really ask a lot. I think most of all everyone should love everybody else. This would make everything so nice and we would all be happy. If you think you can’t show love to someone because you think you don’t like them you have to try anyway. Because trying to love someone really works and you feel better too! Love is really the best way to make people not sad or cry and also the marshmallow streets and worm lips would help a lot.
By Celina Villatoro, 7 years old
3532 W 1025 N
Layton, UT 84041
Change My World Essay
Written by: Celina Villatoro
Age 7
1st grade – Mrs. Naylor
Sand Springs Elementary
Layton, Ut
Marshmallow Streets and Worm Lips by: Celina Villatoro
If I could change anything about the world it would definitely be that nobody would cry anymore. There wouldn’t be any more reasons to cry and no one would be sad. This is a great idea and really needs to be done because crying is bad for us! First of all, we lose water when we cry. Our bodies are made up of a whopping 75 percent of water. When we cry tears, we lose some water and our bodies become sad just like our hearts. Next in line is the fact that tears have salt in them and when they fall down our cheeks they kind of burn them a little and make our cheeks red. This is really embarrassing because people will think we are wearing blush makeup. And also crying makes us sad so I think we might even not live as long if we were always happy. I am happy all the time mostly because my mommy and daddy and sisters and brother loves me and we laugh and have fun all the time. My dogs and my hamster love me too. This makes me happy but sometimes I hurt myself when I fall on my bike and sometimes my feelings get hurt so I cry and this is really bad for my heart and body and even my soul. So we must stop this from happening soon! First we have to figure out just why people cry. Mostly because they are sad or hurt. So we have to get rid of sad things and hurtful things. For instance if someone falls off their bike like I do sometimes then we have to make the streets softer so it won’t hurt. Like maybe make sidewalks and streets made out of marshmallows! And I know this would make bikes and cars sink a little so we would have to make bike and car tires made out of soft cotton. That would be great. Then we have to make people stop saying mean things to others. If a kid tries to make fun of another kid then his lips would turn into worms and he can’t talk! Don’t worry because his lips would turn back to normal in 12 seconds but that would totally freak him out and I bet you he would never try to make fun of a kid or say mean things again. Also there are kids who are hungry and have no place to sleep in this world. I would bring them all to my house. I have enough room I think but if not I can ask my mom to build extra rooms and I am sure she will do it for me because usually she can’t say no if I really ask a lot. I think most of all everyone should love everybody else. This would make everything so nice and we would all be happy. If you think you can’t show love to someone because you think you don’t like them you have to try anyway. Because trying to love someone really works and you feel better too! Love is really the best way to make people not sad or cry and also the marshmallow streets and worm lips would help a lot.
By Celina Villatoro, 7 years old
3532 W 1025 N
Layton, UT 84041
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