How Self-Esteem Guides Success and Failure
Psychology is abundant with theories and concepts that continue to beguile human minds from the most seasoned scientists to the typical citizen. One particular aspect of psychology that affects every person is that of self-esteem. The belief we have in our self is so powerful that it generally affects all areas in life and guides us toward success or failure. This author will delve into the deep psychological realms of self-esteem, what impinges on each individual and their degree of self-esteem, and how one can determine the means to positive self-realization through healthy self-esteem.
The Existence of Self-Esteem
Very few psychological inquiries lack the element of intrigue. Most, however, are specific to certain groups of people and have a diverse array of interest points. Self-esteem is unique in this regard because it affects all human beings. It lives and breathes in every human mind with varying measures of strength and endurance. Self-esteem can lead our thoughts and actions in a most incredible way; guiding us into destructive behavior or successful pursuits. Self-esteem can be defined in simple terms as, “a person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth (Myers, 2005, pg. 62)”.
Many features of human life influence and directly impact a person’s self-esteem. The outside world is always pushing and pulling with an intrusive force into the lives of each individual. The willingness of a person to structure and conduct their own analysis of self worth is dependant on filtering these influences for negative effects. Self-esteem is the power of drive, the blaster of limitations, and the encouragement to a thirsty soul. Everyone has some level of self-esteem, however, this is never the same throughout life as our self-esteem becomes inhibited and grows in direct relation to certain life experiences and challenges with social interaction.
The history of self-esteem can be traced all the way back to childhood. It can be evident in the newest of babies and seemingly grows with the child’s biological progression. Many things can prove to be a determinant for self-esteem, whether poor or extremely healthy. A positive home environment feeds the persistence of a hale and hearty self-esteem. Positive support breeds well adjusted self-conception in children. Interaction with siblings and peers promote self-identity and help to blossom unique individuality. A child becomes aware of their personal qualities and talents and self-esteem flourishes. But there are natural human tendencies to doubt one’s own self worth throughout the many complicated stages of life. The awareness a child may adopt of their self is constantly battled with the perception of other’s intrinsic traits (Myers, 2005). Siblings are compared throughout childhood as others notice specific characteristics. Children become conscious of the reality of differences and tend to doubt the significance of their own contribution to society. And just as positive encouragement can help a child gain self-esteem; negative environmental effects can systematically destroy it. Once a child grows and changes, they are thrust into new situations and grander schemes within the world. No longer does the secluded environment of home supply the needed tools for self-esteem. Parents dote and confirm the greatness within a child, but the new exposure to the outside world through school and other activities threaten the comfort of positive justification and acknowledgment. This author’s seven-year-old daughter comes to mind with the topic of self-esteem. With the insurance of love and support in the household, this author makes it a point to consistently praise her children for their effort and their amazing capabilities. Yet, this author’s daughter has displayed low self-esteem on many occasions. Despite the bombarding comments of her beauty inside and out, this author’s daughter has negatively described herself as less than beautiful. And regardless of the many acknowledgements from her loving parents, school teacher and peers that she is brilliant and intellectually advanced for her age, when this author’s daughter gets less than a perfect grade on a spelling test, she never fails to call herself names that degrade her intelligence. Seemingly, there is more to self-esteem then positive outside influence or negative outside influence. One has an internal calculator that bases worth on many things. Success and failure can be swinging pendulums marking our belief with every move we make.
What Determines Self-Esteem
An important and interesting factor that plays a role in self-esteem development is that of one’s own perceptions. Despite positive role models in life, a happy home, and healthy relationships with others, a person will naturally construct self-beliefs based on internal realities. Influences from others also help self-esteem take shape in new ways. Usually there are inconsistencies with social interactions with others, and many of these provide negative feedback that is usually compiled from another’s self-esteem. Degrading another person or attempting to lower someone’s image will undoubtedly have an affect on the self-perception (Myers, 2005).
Possibly the main ingredient for disturbing behavior is low self-esteem. “A close relationship has been documented between low self-esteem and such problems as violence, alcoholism, drug abuse, eating disorders, school dropouts, teenage pregnancy, suicide, and low academic achievement (NASE, 2008, pg. 1)”. This author has experienced negative effects of low self-esteem. Lack of motivation for betterment of self, fear of trying new things, and unwillingness to recognize successes are all symptoms of self-esteem issues that this author has had challenges with. What this author has determined is that with the ever-changing cycle of life, self-esteem can be dangerously maneuvered to serve a purpose. Self-esteem can be consciously and sub-consciously altered to justify shortcomings and can also be the culprit of them directly.
Within the scope of achievement, it is highly regarded that self-esteem is closely linked with performance. It is very difficult to triumph with a negative or slurred image of one’s self. And it seems that we persistently have to reprogram our life and the belief we have in our self. Therefore, the development of healthy self-esteem is a consistent process in which we must be aware in order to have a balanced existence.
Developing Healthy Self-Esteem
Perhaps there is no certain way of having a belief in self that defies all negativity. If so, success would be imminent in all that we do. But a bright side of this issue is apparent through many psychological studies of self-esteem. Many people have suffered from self-loathing or low self-esteem. As discussed previously, this can come about from outside influence or internal apprehension.
It seems perceptible that having high self-esteem keeps us out of undesirable situations. Persuasion has a huge impact on us in life, and it generates more profusely when our self-esteem is damaged or fragile. Studies on persuasion and its relation to self-esteem have shown that “when people think deeply rather than superficially, any changed attitude will more likely persist, resist attack, and influence behavior (cited from Myers, D., 2005, pg. 249)”. Persuasion has less influence on our well being when we have positive self-esteem and we are able to constantly nurture our self-beliefs and remain static with our feelings about who we are. Outside influence then becomes less relevant and we are able to filter good influence from bad.
While the exploration of self-esteem has proven that high self-esteem is much more positive and provides better results than low self-esteem, it is important to note that while self-esteem is relevant and necessary for a healthy living style, it is also dangerous to have an overly elevated sense of self-esteem. “When feeling threatened, only high-self-esteem people became significantly more antagonistic – arrogant, rude, and unfriendly (cited from Meyers, D., 2005, pg. 65)”. Similarly, low self-esteem will have an astoundingly unconstructive effect.
One must balance this affliction without fail throughout their lives. Because life has a very indistinctive roadmap for us all, we must recognize the many falls and rises of our successes and failures and what helps to cause these events as well as our reaction to them. If a man proposes marriage with a sustaining affirmative response, his self-esteem will naturally heighten. He will believe that he is worthy and will eventually engender characteristics to support this belief. On the other hand, suppose a woman dates a man for a long while and never receives a proposal of marriage or acknowledgement that the relationship will grow into more substantial levels. She will of course feel lowly of herself because of this solitary event and start to wonder what is wrong with her. The latter is a harmful situation, but a healthy person will assess it in order to discern other factors that come into play aside from lack of traits within the self.
Undoubtedly, “crises of self-esteem are a part of the human experience (Zenk, A, 2007, pg. 1)”. Hence, we should understand that normality is evident in fluctuating self-esteem. It is our duty to monitor these occurrences to weed our depression and other afflictions to remain healthy. Balancing our self-belief is also important for the improvement of self-esteem. Self-affirmation techniques such as telling ourselves that we are attractive, able and kind are great ways to increase self-esteem. Reminding ourselves of our achievements and awards throughout life will help sustain a positive self-image as well as evaluating our failures and contemplating what we would change about our performance. We must not, however, allow ourselves to attain blame in other areas to boost our self-esteem. This may protect our self-belief temporarily, but will assess more problems in life that will cause depression and paranoia because we may tend to believe that the world is against us despite our grand attempts at success.
Staying away from “should” statements will also generate better self-awareness habits (Zenk, A., 2007, pg. 1). Staying clear of regret or guilt and appraising the best steps to success will surely gain self-esteem that is accurate and balanced appropriately. “Find out what you want and what you are good at, value those, and take actions designed to fulfill your potential (Zenk, A., 2007, pg. 1)”. One should also avoid “immediate gratification” and treat their own needs and wants with dignity (Zenk, A., 2007, pg. 1)”. Monitoring our growth and the changing needs we have will help us approach a healthy self-image. And lastly, in order to gain and subsequently maintain healthy self-esteem, we should “set achievable goals” and ultimately rely on our “own self-perception” as opposed to the outside view that seemingly penetrates our own beliefs and realities about our self (Zenk, A., 2007, pg. 1). These tools will generate positive self-esteem while maintaining a realism about our growth and undeniable challenges throughout life.
Self-esteem is a topic within psychology that has never lost its luster. The discovery of what self-esteem is and why exactly it is so important has brought us to an understanding that all human beings have self-esteem and deal with it in different ways. Although healthy self-esteem is never set in stone as life experiences cause us to wander in our self-beliefs, it is evident that continually fostering what constitutes as self-esteem is what captures healthy living among human beings. Having a truthful adaptation of who we are, what we are good at, and how we can be better seem to be the fundamental points to continuous self-esteem.
References
Myers, D. (2005). Social Psychology (8th edition). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
NASA, National Association for Self-Esteem (2008). What is self-esteem?
Retrieved April 19, 2009, from National Association for Self-Esteem Web site: http://www.self-esteem-nase.org/what.php.
Zenk, A. (2007). Texas woman’s university. Retrieved May 3, 2009, from Improving
Self-Confidence Web site: http://www.twu.edu/osl/Counseling/SelfHelp034.html.
Sunday, January 17, 2010
Tuesday, January 12, 2010
Psychosexual vs Psychosocial ©
Erik Erickson surprisingly endorsed Sigmund Freud’s theory and supported it almost wholeheartedly despite the obvious contrast that his own theories of development posed against Freud’s. The differences between Freud and Erickson were much more prominent than the similarities.
In regard to development, one of the impacting contrasts between Freud and Erickson was the psychosexual theory of development that Freud employed (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). Although Erickson as a self-proclaimed Freudian did not specifically argue against the psychosexual realm of development like many other theorists, he clearly rejected the focus of sexual motivation in his own developmental theory. Also, Erickson clearly focused his thoughts on development throughout the lifecycle of the human being, while Freud seemingly believed that development in the most early years are what influenced personality (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). Erickson was precise and detailed with his analysis of the development process through life, which made his theory quite unique to others.
Freud concentrated almost solely on biological aspects of human development, insinuating clearly that biology marks the important justifications of behavior and personality. However, though Erickson did agree that biological influence was a strong contender in the causes of personality, he went on to stress that it was the magical marriage of biological and environmental factors that made the development of personality complete (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). Therefore, the main differences between Freud and Erickson can be described as the design they represented. Furthermore, the intricate details that Erickson examined, such as social and cultural aspects of life, truly brought his elaborate theory to new heights (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007).
Despite the unambiguous disparity that existed between Freud and Erickson, there were some comparisons that were evident between these two distinctive theories as well. They both obviously concentrated on the theories of personality and they also had a common psychoanalytical approach to discovering what causes behavior in human beings (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). More distinct similarities can be found through Freud and Erickson’s agreement that personality development occurred through fixed stages (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). Regarding those stages, Freud and Erickson both also fervently believed that a crisis must be resolved before healthy progression throughout the coming stages could successfully transpire (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007).
I believe that Erickson’s theory can most definitely stand alone without the support of Freud’s theory. However, it is important to note that Freud was essential to so many psychologists and theorists that dared to explore personality development further. Whether the purpose was to disprove Freud’s theory or carry it to new dimensions, the reality seems to show that without Freud and his psychosexual developmental theory, there might not have been many more theories on the stages of development to follow. With that said, Erickson himself seemed to connect closely with the Freudian circle and attribute his own great works to Freud much more adamantly than I would suppose to be accurate.
References
Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson M. (2007). Theories of Personality (seventh edition).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
In regard to development, one of the impacting contrasts between Freud and Erickson was the psychosexual theory of development that Freud employed (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). Although Erickson as a self-proclaimed Freudian did not specifically argue against the psychosexual realm of development like many other theorists, he clearly rejected the focus of sexual motivation in his own developmental theory. Also, Erickson clearly focused his thoughts on development throughout the lifecycle of the human being, while Freud seemingly believed that development in the most early years are what influenced personality (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). Erickson was precise and detailed with his analysis of the development process through life, which made his theory quite unique to others.
Freud concentrated almost solely on biological aspects of human development, insinuating clearly that biology marks the important justifications of behavior and personality. However, though Erickson did agree that biological influence was a strong contender in the causes of personality, he went on to stress that it was the magical marriage of biological and environmental factors that made the development of personality complete (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). Therefore, the main differences between Freud and Erickson can be described as the design they represented. Furthermore, the intricate details that Erickson examined, such as social and cultural aspects of life, truly brought his elaborate theory to new heights (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007).
Despite the unambiguous disparity that existed between Freud and Erickson, there were some comparisons that were evident between these two distinctive theories as well. They both obviously concentrated on the theories of personality and they also had a common psychoanalytical approach to discovering what causes behavior in human beings (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). More distinct similarities can be found through Freud and Erickson’s agreement that personality development occurred through fixed stages (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007). Regarding those stages, Freud and Erickson both also fervently believed that a crisis must be resolved before healthy progression throughout the coming stages could successfully transpire (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2007).
I believe that Erickson’s theory can most definitely stand alone without the support of Freud’s theory. However, it is important to note that Freud was essential to so many psychologists and theorists that dared to explore personality development further. Whether the purpose was to disprove Freud’s theory or carry it to new dimensions, the reality seems to show that without Freud and his psychosexual developmental theory, there might not have been many more theories on the stages of development to follow. With that said, Erickson himself seemed to connect closely with the Freudian circle and attribute his own great works to Freud much more adamantly than I would suppose to be accurate.
References
Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson M. (2007). Theories of Personality (seventh edition).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Thursday, December 10, 2009
Divisions of the Mind ©
Freud had fascinating ideas of the human psyche and measured the ostensibly eccentric aspects of the human being by presenting his principles in a manner that both shocked and intrigued. His three components of personality still influences psychology in today’s world.
The id is the foundation of the beginning of development in personality. The basic needs of survival influence action and this can be seen from early infanthood. A child can only obtain his needs by showing signs of hunger or pain. The id reflects the belief of Freud that the main objective of human life is to ward off pain and to gain pleasure (Bannister, D., 2009).
The ego serves as a functioning extension of the id in that it applies to the ability and understanding of consequences. The ego allows a person to adjust to society by implementing common sense into the reality of life. Reasoning and problem- solving are a part of the ego as it tries to upgrade one from the simplicity or barbaric nature of the id. One cannot simply attain basic needs like pleasure and avoidance of pain without exerting some complex ideals that serve not only the needs of that person but of the ability to exist peacefully beyond simple desires (Bannister, D., 2009).
The superego serves as a balancing mechanism of both the id and ego. The super ego catapults the person into a realm of higher objectives such as morality and ethical thinking (Bannister, D., 2009). Freud concluded that the rights and wrongs we learned from our parents are subjugated deeply into our consciousness and the superego is used primarily to transport that knowledge into outwardly behavior.
The relationship between id, ego and superego is one that is quite complex. There is a unity among the three that seemingly helps the human being to be progressive despite himself, yet they all have a sort of conflicting nature that causes them to each rely on the aspects of the others to enhance our development.
References
Bannister, D. (2009). Freud's personality factors. Retrieved from
http://changingminds.org/explanations/personality/freud_personality.htm#per.
The id is the foundation of the beginning of development in personality. The basic needs of survival influence action and this can be seen from early infanthood. A child can only obtain his needs by showing signs of hunger or pain. The id reflects the belief of Freud that the main objective of human life is to ward off pain and to gain pleasure (Bannister, D., 2009).
The ego serves as a functioning extension of the id in that it applies to the ability and understanding of consequences. The ego allows a person to adjust to society by implementing common sense into the reality of life. Reasoning and problem- solving are a part of the ego as it tries to upgrade one from the simplicity or barbaric nature of the id. One cannot simply attain basic needs like pleasure and avoidance of pain without exerting some complex ideals that serve not only the needs of that person but of the ability to exist peacefully beyond simple desires (Bannister, D., 2009).
The superego serves as a balancing mechanism of both the id and ego. The super ego catapults the person into a realm of higher objectives such as morality and ethical thinking (Bannister, D., 2009). Freud concluded that the rights and wrongs we learned from our parents are subjugated deeply into our consciousness and the superego is used primarily to transport that knowledge into outwardly behavior.
The relationship between id, ego and superego is one that is quite complex. There is a unity among the three that seemingly helps the human being to be progressive despite himself, yet they all have a sort of conflicting nature that causes them to each rely on the aspects of the others to enhance our development.
References
Bannister, D. (2009). Freud's personality factors. Retrieved from
http://changingminds.org/explanations/personality/freud_personality.htm#per.
Determinants of Personality ©
Personality is a major aspect of human existence. So many factors can influence and shape one’s personality and those factors can seemingly become a fusion that determines the overall quality and character that a person possesses.
Genetics are a fascinating part of us both biologically and psychologically. So many aspects of a person fall into the deep pool of genetics including behavior, physical traits and characteristics of one’s personality (Wiley, 2007). Because genetics are unwavering and cannot be changed or determined by the recipient of the genetics, it poses an interesting role in how a personality is developed. A child’s disposition, tendency towards aggression and intelligence can be a result of genetics (Wiley, 2007).
Traits are unique qualifications of personality that we all obtain as human beings. These traits can be plentiful and harmoniously make each person different than the next. Traits can be inherited or even acquired through one’s environment by observing behavior. Agreeableness and neuroticism are some example of personality traits (Livesley, J., Jang, K., Vernon, P., 1998). While the acquisition of traits can be simple, the structure of them can be quite complex. Traits can be phenotypic or even genetically attained (Livesley, J., et al., 1998).
Sociocultural determinants can certainly have an effect on personality. We absorb the environment around us and that shapes and defines whom we develop into. Our social and culture aspects of life certainly delegate how we perceive ourselves and the world around us. Many particular cultures differ in belief systems and those cultural treasures affect the child that is raised among them.
Learning is perhaps one of the most impacting determinants of personality. We not only learn traditional knowledge but behaviors that are acceptable in society. This learning can easily intensify personality and create diversions in what should be expected. A child learns right from wrong when being disciplined over poor behavior or is rewarded for positive actions.
Existential-humanistic considerations revolves around the power that we have as thinking human beings and the free will that is devised from it. This can effect personality by enhancing one’s choices in their actions and behaviors. A person can weigh the consequences of an action and make a decision upon it with free will and understanding of the deliberation process that it elicits.
Unconscious mechanisms help determine personality because it deals with the cause of behavior. A person is impinged on by many events in their lives, both knowingly and unknowingly. A volatile childhood can shape one’s personality and cause them to be guarded with others and fearful because of the essential environment they arose from.
Cognitive processes can primarily be explained as the floating factors that make one’s abilities and knowledge put into action (Flower, L., Hayes, J., 1981). How one relays what they know to be and how they enforce that knowledge in their life shows the complexity of cognitive processes at work. How a person recognizes a threat or can read language and adapt that language as a tool are examples of cognitive processes that can shape personality. The more one thrives on this ability, the more robust and well defined their personality may become.
References
Flower, L., Hayes, J., Initials. (1981). A Cognitive process theory of writing. College
Composition and Communication, 32(4), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/356600.
Livesley, J., Jang, K., Vernon, P. (1998). Phenotypic and genetic structure of
traits delineating personality disorder . Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(10), Retrieved from http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/55/10/941.
Wiley, J. (2007). The Evolutionary genetics of personality. Retrieved from
http://www.unm.edu/~gfmiller/newpapers_sept6/penke%202007%20targetarticle.pdf.
Genetics are a fascinating part of us both biologically and psychologically. So many aspects of a person fall into the deep pool of genetics including behavior, physical traits and characteristics of one’s personality (Wiley, 2007). Because genetics are unwavering and cannot be changed or determined by the recipient of the genetics, it poses an interesting role in how a personality is developed. A child’s disposition, tendency towards aggression and intelligence can be a result of genetics (Wiley, 2007).
Traits are unique qualifications of personality that we all obtain as human beings. These traits can be plentiful and harmoniously make each person different than the next. Traits can be inherited or even acquired through one’s environment by observing behavior. Agreeableness and neuroticism are some example of personality traits (Livesley, J., Jang, K., Vernon, P., 1998). While the acquisition of traits can be simple, the structure of them can be quite complex. Traits can be phenotypic or even genetically attained (Livesley, J., et al., 1998).
Sociocultural determinants can certainly have an effect on personality. We absorb the environment around us and that shapes and defines whom we develop into. Our social and culture aspects of life certainly delegate how we perceive ourselves and the world around us. Many particular cultures differ in belief systems and those cultural treasures affect the child that is raised among them.
Learning is perhaps one of the most impacting determinants of personality. We not only learn traditional knowledge but behaviors that are acceptable in society. This learning can easily intensify personality and create diversions in what should be expected. A child learns right from wrong when being disciplined over poor behavior or is rewarded for positive actions.
Existential-humanistic considerations revolves around the power that we have as thinking human beings and the free will that is devised from it. This can effect personality by enhancing one’s choices in their actions and behaviors. A person can weigh the consequences of an action and make a decision upon it with free will and understanding of the deliberation process that it elicits.
Unconscious mechanisms help determine personality because it deals with the cause of behavior. A person is impinged on by many events in their lives, both knowingly and unknowingly. A volatile childhood can shape one’s personality and cause them to be guarded with others and fearful because of the essential environment they arose from.
Cognitive processes can primarily be explained as the floating factors that make one’s abilities and knowledge put into action (Flower, L., Hayes, J., 1981). How one relays what they know to be and how they enforce that knowledge in their life shows the complexity of cognitive processes at work. How a person recognizes a threat or can read language and adapt that language as a tool are examples of cognitive processes that can shape personality. The more one thrives on this ability, the more robust and well defined their personality may become.
References
Flower, L., Hayes, J., Initials. (1981). A Cognitive process theory of writing. College
Composition and Communication, 32(4), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/356600.
Livesley, J., Jang, K., Vernon, P. (1998). Phenotypic and genetic structure of
traits delineating personality disorder . Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(10), Retrieved from http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/55/10/941.
Wiley, J. (2007). The Evolutionary genetics of personality. Retrieved from
http://www.unm.edu/~gfmiller/newpapers_sept6/penke%202007%20targetarticle.pdf.
Monday, December 7, 2009
The Implications of AHDH Medication Use Among College Students ©
The Implications of AHDH Medication Use Among College Students
Jeannette Villatoro
BKF9454A
Professor Alina Perez
November 30, 2009
Abstract
ADHD has become a rising diagnosis in our nation, specifically among young people. ADHD is characterized by a pattern of disrupting behaviors that can include hyperactivity and inattention (Carlson, 2005). With this rising epidemic of ADHD, an alarming study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of a college campus and subsequently conducted at that college. Results proved that most of the participants surveyed illegally used ADHD medication for academic or social use. Most of the participants were not educated on the effects of the drug with non-prescription use and a majority of the participants failed to understand the consequences of using the drug. This study dared to uncover the truth of ADHD medication use on college campuses, break the stereotypes of the common users of the drug, and try to discover preventive measures to ward of such astonishing drug use among college students.
The Implications of AHDH Medication Use Among College Students
ADHD medication has been noticed recently for being an epidemic leading to abuse among college students without a medical prescription. With the dangerous side effects of the medications along with the vast availability of these medications to those without a viable medical use for it, it has become a major dilemma in society and on college campuses. One particular study utilized qualitative and quantitative research to delve into the depths of ADHD medication use among college students, why and how it is obtained, and through the composed results of the study the authors attempted to uncover means to successfully combat the devastating use of illegal stimulants among young students today.
Background
The authors of this particular study titled Illicit Use of Prescription ADHD Medications on a College Campus: A Multimethodological Approach attempted and successfully proved the perceptions of college students in the matter of ADHD medications as well as the illegal use of such medications (Webb, Noar, 2008). In this research study, qualitative and quantitative research was conducted in the form of surveys, questionnaires, and in-depth interviews. The nature and intent of the study was to assume the reasoning behind illegal usage of ADHD medication and the understanding that the users of the medication may or may not have regarding the effects of the drug.
The importance of this study is plentiful. It highlights illegal drug use among young people today, which is a major concern in society. It focuses on the use of prescription drugs for collegiate matters. As noted by Carlson, “attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is the most common behavior disorder that first appears in childhood” (Carlson, 2005, p. 502). This disorder, most commonly diagnosed among adolescent boys, reflects impulsive behavior and intermittent bursts of rapid responses with brain imaging studies (Carlson, 2005). Adderall is a strong and quick acting drug that is administered to those with ADHD and seems to be the most popular method of controlling the disorder. Adderall, a highly addictive prescription medication for ADHD, is exceedingly prescribed and therefore is quite easily obtained by students who are not intended to use the drug but desire to attain the drug for purposes of the effects (American Psychological Association, 2009).
The authors of this particular study on ADHD medications wanted to discern not just the statistical use of the medications as outlined in previous studies, but the reasons why the stimulants were used and how they were obtained (Webb, Noar, 2008). After all, most studies collected data as to the population of students that use it along with how big the epedimic might be, but the underlying reasons and disturbing facts about the use of ADHD medication was still to be investigated. Quantitative research has certainly given statistics on this troublesome truth about illicit drug use among college students. Furthermore, qualitative research has attempted to reveal the perspective of the students. In one particular qualitative study conducted prior to and separate of the authors study, it was explained that, “students are using Aderall, the ADHD medication that's misused on college campuses to sharpen focus and pump up test-taking ability” (Burrell, J., 2009).
The authors of Illicit Use of Prescription ADHD Medications on a College Campus: A Multimethodological Approach wanted to integrate statistical data with some of the impacting information that can only be acquired from the students themselves. The authors wanted to compile an all-embracing study that made a difference and educed a new understanding of this dilemma. To do this, the authors of the study “examined (1) factors that led to first use of prescription ADHD medications, (2) motives for continued use of these medications, and (3) where and how students access these medications” (Webb, Noar, 2008, p. 2). Many comprehensive approaches such as in-depth interviewing, surveying and questionnaires were exploited by the authors of this study to make sure that all avenues of use and distribution of the stimulants were covered so that a general degree of possible prevention of illegal use of stimulants could be properly assessed (Webb, Noar, 2008). The Institutional Review Board of the college reviewed and accepted the surveys, questionnaires and study methods proposed by the authors of the study (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Research Method
When conducting research for an experiment, it is ethically and scientifically necessary to implement strategies to ensure that threats to validity cannot occur (Davis, Smith, 2009). One of the ways to warrant such a distinction in experimentation that is free from threats is to use a consent form. In this particular experiment regarding ADHD medications among college students, a consent form was given with an extensive outline of the study and the topic of the research for participants to sign and understand (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Whether or not qualitative or quantitative measures are utilized seems to be a major area of interest in the scientific community. According to Aston, quantitative research “argues that both the natural and social sciences strive for testable and confirmable theories that explain phenomena by showing how they are derived from theoretical assumptions” (Aston, M., 2007, p.1). Qualitative research methods, however, “employ an insider's perspective which makes qualitative research an intensely personal and subjective style of research” (Aston, M., 2007, p.1). Both methods are extremely useful and should not be considered as rival methods (Jick, T., 1979). When both methods are executed within one experiment, the benefits of both methods are allowed to flourish and a fusion of numerically verifiable data with hands-on understanding is made.
This particular study regarding ADHD medications among college students utilized both qualitative and quantitative research techniques to bring about a comprehensive mixed model study. In the quantitative design, the authors of this study conducted surveys in two parts. In the first part, surveys were administered in a convenience sampling of 1,340 students in an introductory theory class. The other part was a convenience sampling of an additional 470 students of an upper-level curriculum so that a randomization was effective with a multitude of majors that were selected for the study (Webb, Noar, 2008).
For the qualitative aspect of the study, in-depth interviews were conducted on 175 full-time undergraduate students. Tape recorders were used for transcription and names were replaced with pseudonyms to protect privacy (Webb, Noar, 2008). According to Goodman, “in studying statistics it is sometimes useful to consider improper probability distributions, that is additive measures to the universal event” (Goodman, T., 1977, p. 387). In this particular study outlining illicit ADHD drug use among college students, the authors took careful precaution in making sure that these measures were accounted for. The details of the questions involved were how the student obtained the drugs, how much they knew about the effects, and whether or not they were educated on the drug (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Participants
Studies have shown that illegal stimulant abuse was more common among white and Latino male college students than African American and Asian students (Webb, Noar, 2008). The authors of this particular study wanted to present an equal opportunity to gather statistical analysis and in-depth study on all of the college population. The authors used female and male participants as well as different unique nationalities. They compiled their group of participants by ensuring that different classes were involved as well as different levels of college classman. This would eradicate any variables that could contend this study to be unverifiable or bias in addition to allowing the study to focus on the overall population of students and create a replication study that would prove or disprove the previous findings of common abusers of stimulant drug use (Webb, Noar, 2008). There was no apparent documentation of participants that dropped out of the study or participants that only completed partial areas of the study. Therefore, it seemed to be an inclusive study with considerable results from the participants involved.
Results
The results of the study were staggering with several proportionate measures. The survey results of adderall users were gathered and compared between focus groups. These results were based on the surveys conducted and reflected the use of the drug, motivations for use, and the commonality of use among college students that were studied.
First time use among college students also harbored results and showed that 65% of adderall users without a prescription used other non-prescription stimulants before illegally using ADHD medication (Webb, Noar, 2008). Results were also collected about the understanding that users of ADHD medication had about the side effects of the drug, what it was prescribed for, and the damage it can do when taken without a medical reason.
The authors of the study divided the participants by demographics to understand the proportion of the results better. Of the 708 men that were surveyed, 39% reported illicitly using prescription ADHD stimulants and 61% had not used. Among the 895 women that were surveyed, 266 reported using and 629 reported not using. Concluding the results, it was established that 69% of all participants claiming to have used ADHD medication did so for the first time in a college setting and not outside of school (Webb, Noar, 2008). These results show the urgency of ADHD medication use on a college campus and the alarming rates of illegal use.
Motivations for Taking Illegal ADHD Medications
The authors of this study focused intently on the desire and motivation for students to elicit drug use. Of these motivations, it was captured in this particular research study that most students are motivated by two categories that the study separates as academic reasons and non-academic reasons (Webb, Noar, 2008). Because the drug heightens the senses and ability to focus with stamina, it is a common drug that is easy to find and difficult to stop using. An important factor that was adapted through this study was that “unlike most other illegal substances that these college students took, they did not use stimulants primarily for social or entertainment purposes” (Webb, Noar, 2008, p. 4). This is a huge development when discerning the reasons for ADHD medication use because it showed that 72% of the participants in the study used the drug for getting good grades, staying up late, and to study longer rather than for recreational reasons (Webb, Noar, 2008). Of that 72%, about a third of participants specifically gave a motive of being smarter for taking the drug whuile 12% deduced that taking the drug made academic work more interesting (Webb, Noar, 2008).
In regards to the small percentage of participants that didn’t equate the motivations for ADHD medication usage to academics, 7% of particpants explained that taking the drug made them more talkative allowed them to stay up longer for social parties (Webb, Noar, 2008). The conclusion of the study in regards to motivation showed that even when academic motivation was the strongest reason for taking the medication, other non-academic reasons were sometimes closely related (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Obtaining Illegal Stimulants
This study included the means in which students obtain illegal stimulants and the ease to do so as interpreted by the students themselves as well as the increased availability and culpability of the users. This is an intense addition to this study as it outlines how these drugs are so easily obtained and why they are so commonly prescribed with the knowledge of outrageous illegal use.
Of the participants that were studied, a confounding 39% of participants regarded the drug as very easy to get, while 43% found it somewhat easy to obtain, 13% said it was somewhat difficult to find the drug and a minimal 1% found it difficult to obtain the drug. Additionally, an astonishing 89% of participants acquired the drug through college acquaintances rather than drug dealers on the street. In conclusion, only a mere 4% of participants actually had a prescription for the ADHD medication from a medical doctor and a few of those particular participants were not sure whether they needed it or not (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Prevention
One of the best aspects of this study is the authors’ comments on the findings and their belief in how to prevent the illegal use of ADHD medication among college students. The authors explore three viable alternatives to the outburst of illegal ADHD medication use. One of these possibilities is targeting the student suppliers of the stimulants. If this is done, it would do away with the supply and demand aspect of AHDH medications. By confining an easily available supply of the drug on college campuses, it would help to reduce usage by students and help prevent students from beginning use. (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Another area of prevention that the authors introduced was education on the illegal use of stimulants. The importance of this goes beyond measure because it empowers the student with the facts of the drug and the causes that may arise. With the benefits and dangerous effects clear to the potential user, it will be possible to make an educated and healthy choice regarding the drug (Webb, Noar, 2008). Moreover, students should be made aware of the illegal nature of using these drugs despite the prescription nature of the medication.
The last proposal for prevention that the authors delegated was the belief that professors should consider limiting demands on college students (Webb, Noar, 2008). With less stress and pressure on the students, focus can be given on the tasks at hand rather than the conception of being perfect. With a more lax schedule and academic demands, students may opt out of dangerous means of enhancing educational endeavors (Webb, Noar, 2008).
The illicit use of ADHD medication is on the rise as a contagion, particularly among college students. The authors of this unique study made an important discovery about the use of these medications from the student’s perspective while marrying this information with numerical statistics. Additionally, the authors of this study chose to use the collected data and interpretations for the purpose of identifying troublesome variables and turn them into a practical solution for prevention. The support and education that was given to the students as well as the inimitable mixed model method of research that was put into practice made this particular study effective and quite necessary for psychological research in the era that we currently live.
References
American Psychological Association, Initials. (2009). Differential effectiveness of
methylphenidate and adderall® in school-age youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/?fa=main.doiLanding&uid=1999-03138-007.
Aston, M. (2007). Qualitative vs quantitative. Retrieved from
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/ED690DR/Class01/QvsQ.html.
Burrell, J. (2009). Supergirl epidemic: teenage girls sinking under pressure to be perfect. McClatchy - Tribune News Service, Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1721268761&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=74379&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Carlson, N. (2005). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (sixth edition). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Davis, S. F., & Smith, R. A. (2009). The Psychologist as Detective (fifth edition). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
DeSantis, A., Webb, E., & Noar, S. (2008). Illicit Use of Prescription ADHD
Medications on a College Campus: A Multimethodological Approach. Journal of
American College Health, 57(3), 315-24. Retrieved November 30, 2009, from
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1592649781&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=74379&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Goodman, T. (1977). Qualitative probability and improper distributions. Journal of the
Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 39(3), 387-393. Retrieved December 4, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2985100.
Jick, T. (1979). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(4), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2392366.
Jeannette Villatoro
BKF9454A
Professor Alina Perez
November 30, 2009
Abstract
ADHD has become a rising diagnosis in our nation, specifically among young people. ADHD is characterized by a pattern of disrupting behaviors that can include hyperactivity and inattention (Carlson, 2005). With this rising epidemic of ADHD, an alarming study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of a college campus and subsequently conducted at that college. Results proved that most of the participants surveyed illegally used ADHD medication for academic or social use. Most of the participants were not educated on the effects of the drug with non-prescription use and a majority of the participants failed to understand the consequences of using the drug. This study dared to uncover the truth of ADHD medication use on college campuses, break the stereotypes of the common users of the drug, and try to discover preventive measures to ward of such astonishing drug use among college students.
The Implications of AHDH Medication Use Among College Students
ADHD medication has been noticed recently for being an epidemic leading to abuse among college students without a medical prescription. With the dangerous side effects of the medications along with the vast availability of these medications to those without a viable medical use for it, it has become a major dilemma in society and on college campuses. One particular study utilized qualitative and quantitative research to delve into the depths of ADHD medication use among college students, why and how it is obtained, and through the composed results of the study the authors attempted to uncover means to successfully combat the devastating use of illegal stimulants among young students today.
Background
The authors of this particular study titled Illicit Use of Prescription ADHD Medications on a College Campus: A Multimethodological Approach attempted and successfully proved the perceptions of college students in the matter of ADHD medications as well as the illegal use of such medications (Webb, Noar, 2008). In this research study, qualitative and quantitative research was conducted in the form of surveys, questionnaires, and in-depth interviews. The nature and intent of the study was to assume the reasoning behind illegal usage of ADHD medication and the understanding that the users of the medication may or may not have regarding the effects of the drug.
The importance of this study is plentiful. It highlights illegal drug use among young people today, which is a major concern in society. It focuses on the use of prescription drugs for collegiate matters. As noted by Carlson, “attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is the most common behavior disorder that first appears in childhood” (Carlson, 2005, p. 502). This disorder, most commonly diagnosed among adolescent boys, reflects impulsive behavior and intermittent bursts of rapid responses with brain imaging studies (Carlson, 2005). Adderall is a strong and quick acting drug that is administered to those with ADHD and seems to be the most popular method of controlling the disorder. Adderall, a highly addictive prescription medication for ADHD, is exceedingly prescribed and therefore is quite easily obtained by students who are not intended to use the drug but desire to attain the drug for purposes of the effects (American Psychological Association, 2009).
The authors of this particular study on ADHD medications wanted to discern not just the statistical use of the medications as outlined in previous studies, but the reasons why the stimulants were used and how they were obtained (Webb, Noar, 2008). After all, most studies collected data as to the population of students that use it along with how big the epedimic might be, but the underlying reasons and disturbing facts about the use of ADHD medication was still to be investigated. Quantitative research has certainly given statistics on this troublesome truth about illicit drug use among college students. Furthermore, qualitative research has attempted to reveal the perspective of the students. In one particular qualitative study conducted prior to and separate of the authors study, it was explained that, “students are using Aderall, the ADHD medication that's misused on college campuses to sharpen focus and pump up test-taking ability” (Burrell, J., 2009).
The authors of Illicit Use of Prescription ADHD Medications on a College Campus: A Multimethodological Approach wanted to integrate statistical data with some of the impacting information that can only be acquired from the students themselves. The authors wanted to compile an all-embracing study that made a difference and educed a new understanding of this dilemma. To do this, the authors of the study “examined (1) factors that led to first use of prescription ADHD medications, (2) motives for continued use of these medications, and (3) where and how students access these medications” (Webb, Noar, 2008, p. 2). Many comprehensive approaches such as in-depth interviewing, surveying and questionnaires were exploited by the authors of this study to make sure that all avenues of use and distribution of the stimulants were covered so that a general degree of possible prevention of illegal use of stimulants could be properly assessed (Webb, Noar, 2008). The Institutional Review Board of the college reviewed and accepted the surveys, questionnaires and study methods proposed by the authors of the study (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Research Method
When conducting research for an experiment, it is ethically and scientifically necessary to implement strategies to ensure that threats to validity cannot occur (Davis, Smith, 2009). One of the ways to warrant such a distinction in experimentation that is free from threats is to use a consent form. In this particular experiment regarding ADHD medications among college students, a consent form was given with an extensive outline of the study and the topic of the research for participants to sign and understand (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Whether or not qualitative or quantitative measures are utilized seems to be a major area of interest in the scientific community. According to Aston, quantitative research “argues that both the natural and social sciences strive for testable and confirmable theories that explain phenomena by showing how they are derived from theoretical assumptions” (Aston, M., 2007, p.1). Qualitative research methods, however, “employ an insider's perspective which makes qualitative research an intensely personal and subjective style of research” (Aston, M., 2007, p.1). Both methods are extremely useful and should not be considered as rival methods (Jick, T., 1979). When both methods are executed within one experiment, the benefits of both methods are allowed to flourish and a fusion of numerically verifiable data with hands-on understanding is made.
This particular study regarding ADHD medications among college students utilized both qualitative and quantitative research techniques to bring about a comprehensive mixed model study. In the quantitative design, the authors of this study conducted surveys in two parts. In the first part, surveys were administered in a convenience sampling of 1,340 students in an introductory theory class. The other part was a convenience sampling of an additional 470 students of an upper-level curriculum so that a randomization was effective with a multitude of majors that were selected for the study (Webb, Noar, 2008).
For the qualitative aspect of the study, in-depth interviews were conducted on 175 full-time undergraduate students. Tape recorders were used for transcription and names were replaced with pseudonyms to protect privacy (Webb, Noar, 2008). According to Goodman, “in studying statistics it is sometimes useful to consider improper probability distributions, that is additive measures to the universal event” (Goodman, T., 1977, p. 387). In this particular study outlining illicit ADHD drug use among college students, the authors took careful precaution in making sure that these measures were accounted for. The details of the questions involved were how the student obtained the drugs, how much they knew about the effects, and whether or not they were educated on the drug (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Participants
Studies have shown that illegal stimulant abuse was more common among white and Latino male college students than African American and Asian students (Webb, Noar, 2008). The authors of this particular study wanted to present an equal opportunity to gather statistical analysis and in-depth study on all of the college population. The authors used female and male participants as well as different unique nationalities. They compiled their group of participants by ensuring that different classes were involved as well as different levels of college classman. This would eradicate any variables that could contend this study to be unverifiable or bias in addition to allowing the study to focus on the overall population of students and create a replication study that would prove or disprove the previous findings of common abusers of stimulant drug use (Webb, Noar, 2008). There was no apparent documentation of participants that dropped out of the study or participants that only completed partial areas of the study. Therefore, it seemed to be an inclusive study with considerable results from the participants involved.
Results
The results of the study were staggering with several proportionate measures. The survey results of adderall users were gathered and compared between focus groups. These results were based on the surveys conducted and reflected the use of the drug, motivations for use, and the commonality of use among college students that were studied.
First time use among college students also harbored results and showed that 65% of adderall users without a prescription used other non-prescription stimulants before illegally using ADHD medication (Webb, Noar, 2008). Results were also collected about the understanding that users of ADHD medication had about the side effects of the drug, what it was prescribed for, and the damage it can do when taken without a medical reason.
The authors of the study divided the participants by demographics to understand the proportion of the results better. Of the 708 men that were surveyed, 39% reported illicitly using prescription ADHD stimulants and 61% had not used. Among the 895 women that were surveyed, 266 reported using and 629 reported not using. Concluding the results, it was established that 69% of all participants claiming to have used ADHD medication did so for the first time in a college setting and not outside of school (Webb, Noar, 2008). These results show the urgency of ADHD medication use on a college campus and the alarming rates of illegal use.
Motivations for Taking Illegal ADHD Medications
The authors of this study focused intently on the desire and motivation for students to elicit drug use. Of these motivations, it was captured in this particular research study that most students are motivated by two categories that the study separates as academic reasons and non-academic reasons (Webb, Noar, 2008). Because the drug heightens the senses and ability to focus with stamina, it is a common drug that is easy to find and difficult to stop using. An important factor that was adapted through this study was that “unlike most other illegal substances that these college students took, they did not use stimulants primarily for social or entertainment purposes” (Webb, Noar, 2008, p. 4). This is a huge development when discerning the reasons for ADHD medication use because it showed that 72% of the participants in the study used the drug for getting good grades, staying up late, and to study longer rather than for recreational reasons (Webb, Noar, 2008). Of that 72%, about a third of participants specifically gave a motive of being smarter for taking the drug whuile 12% deduced that taking the drug made academic work more interesting (Webb, Noar, 2008).
In regards to the small percentage of participants that didn’t equate the motivations for ADHD medication usage to academics, 7% of particpants explained that taking the drug made them more talkative allowed them to stay up longer for social parties (Webb, Noar, 2008). The conclusion of the study in regards to motivation showed that even when academic motivation was the strongest reason for taking the medication, other non-academic reasons were sometimes closely related (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Obtaining Illegal Stimulants
This study included the means in which students obtain illegal stimulants and the ease to do so as interpreted by the students themselves as well as the increased availability and culpability of the users. This is an intense addition to this study as it outlines how these drugs are so easily obtained and why they are so commonly prescribed with the knowledge of outrageous illegal use.
Of the participants that were studied, a confounding 39% of participants regarded the drug as very easy to get, while 43% found it somewhat easy to obtain, 13% said it was somewhat difficult to find the drug and a minimal 1% found it difficult to obtain the drug. Additionally, an astonishing 89% of participants acquired the drug through college acquaintances rather than drug dealers on the street. In conclusion, only a mere 4% of participants actually had a prescription for the ADHD medication from a medical doctor and a few of those particular participants were not sure whether they needed it or not (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Prevention
One of the best aspects of this study is the authors’ comments on the findings and their belief in how to prevent the illegal use of ADHD medication among college students. The authors explore three viable alternatives to the outburst of illegal ADHD medication use. One of these possibilities is targeting the student suppliers of the stimulants. If this is done, it would do away with the supply and demand aspect of AHDH medications. By confining an easily available supply of the drug on college campuses, it would help to reduce usage by students and help prevent students from beginning use. (Webb, Noar, 2008).
Another area of prevention that the authors introduced was education on the illegal use of stimulants. The importance of this goes beyond measure because it empowers the student with the facts of the drug and the causes that may arise. With the benefits and dangerous effects clear to the potential user, it will be possible to make an educated and healthy choice regarding the drug (Webb, Noar, 2008). Moreover, students should be made aware of the illegal nature of using these drugs despite the prescription nature of the medication.
The last proposal for prevention that the authors delegated was the belief that professors should consider limiting demands on college students (Webb, Noar, 2008). With less stress and pressure on the students, focus can be given on the tasks at hand rather than the conception of being perfect. With a more lax schedule and academic demands, students may opt out of dangerous means of enhancing educational endeavors (Webb, Noar, 2008).
The illicit use of ADHD medication is on the rise as a contagion, particularly among college students. The authors of this unique study made an important discovery about the use of these medications from the student’s perspective while marrying this information with numerical statistics. Additionally, the authors of this study chose to use the collected data and interpretations for the purpose of identifying troublesome variables and turn them into a practical solution for prevention. The support and education that was given to the students as well as the inimitable mixed model method of research that was put into practice made this particular study effective and quite necessary for psychological research in the era that we currently live.
References
American Psychological Association, Initials. (2009). Differential effectiveness of
methylphenidate and adderall® in school-age youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/?fa=main.doiLanding&uid=1999-03138-007.
Aston, M. (2007). Qualitative vs quantitative. Retrieved from
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/ED690DR/Class01/QvsQ.html.
Burrell, J. (2009). Supergirl epidemic: teenage girls sinking under pressure to be perfect. McClatchy - Tribune News Service, Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1721268761&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=74379&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Carlson, N. (2005). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (sixth edition). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Davis, S. F., & Smith, R. A. (2009). The Psychologist as Detective (fifth edition). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
DeSantis, A., Webb, E., & Noar, S. (2008). Illicit Use of Prescription ADHD
Medications on a College Campus: A Multimethodological Approach. Journal of
American College Health, 57(3), 315-24. Retrieved November 30, 2009, from
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1592649781&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=74379&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Goodman, T. (1977). Qualitative probability and improper distributions. Journal of the
Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 39(3), 387-393. Retrieved December 4, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2985100.
Jick, T. (1979). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(4), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2392366.
Sunday, December 6, 2009
Design Differences ©
Design Differences
Jeannette Villatoro
BKF9454A
Professor Alina Perez
November 10, 2009
Abstract
Qualitative and quantitative research are fascinating designs that can interpret and articulate a vast majority of interesting psychological topics. The two designs differ greatly in the techniques of measure that are utilized along with the intended principle of the studies being conducted. Although different measures and practices may be in place that separates the two models, similarities in detection make the qualitative and quantitative research methods closely related with the ability to compliment one another with explosive learning opportunities that propels science forward.
Design Differences
Research is an imperatively significant aspect of psychology that allow understanding and new discovery to emerge. Two types of research that may be utilized are the quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative research is based more on the experience of the participant and documenting the findings of the research from the participant’s own view. Qualitative research deals with systematic data that is used to describe the results of a study. While both methods are quite lucrative for the purpose of gathering information, there are many characteristics that exemplify these methods of research. This author will attempt to uncover some of the characteristics underlying these methods of research, the benefits of each method and the contrast between the characteristics that make these methods so unique.
Qualitative research is designated to collect data and observe behavior as it occurs. Because of this facet of qualitative research, a researcher or experimenter can only speculate as to the causation of the experiment whereas qualitative research performs certain methods to try and uncover the actual cause and effect of a certain experiment. While qualitative research depends on the opinions and behaviors of others, quantitative research delves into why these behaviors occur through experimentation or the relationship between variables through descriptive methods (Hopkins, 2000). Since descriptive methods “do not involve the manipulation of an independent variable”, they vary from experimental methods quite intensely (Davis, Smith, 2009, p. 59). Furthermore, qualitative data tends to focus on smaller groups of participants with rich details about each individual. Quantitative research deals with more people and hopes to accomplish a generalization of the populations being examined (Davis, Smith, 2009). Because there are different outcomes that may result from the different research methods, it is important to understand the different ways in which these studies are conducted and how these may differ depending on the nature of the design.
Sampling is a common technique in research that helps discover viable results. Although it is an effective technique, it is very labor intensive (Stevens, 2009). There are various sampling methods that can be utilized in research, dependent on whether it is a qualitative or quantitative study. Usually sampling entails selecting certain groups of individuals from a larger group of people for a research study (Davis, Smith, 2009). Purposeful sampling is a deliberate method of sampling that is used to gain the insight of others on a certain topic of interest. The objective is for a researcher to select “information-rich cases for study in depth” (Patton, 2001). With purposeful sampling, a researcher will choose a select group of individuals based on certain characteristics. These characteristics may include age, sex, income and other variables. However, with quantitative research there is a random selection of people when sampling is done. The reason for random sampling is to ensure that certain variables that cannot be changed will not affect the findings (Davis, Smith, 2009). This is imperative for a quantitative experiment to hold dignity and show validity through its findings. The differences between non-random sampling and random sampling are strong and equate whether quantitative and qualitative research measures are taken to provide comprehensive results.
Another important factor of research is the researcher himself. His involvement and interpretation of the experiment is very valuable and also can even be debilitating depending on which research method is being used. If a researcher is conducting a quantitative experiment, he must be impartial and detached with an objective portrayal (Gleshne, Peshkin, 1992). In essence, while it is important to weed out the extraneous variables that may have a causal relationship with other variables in the experiment, the researcher and his interaction in the study can become an extraneous variable itself with a strong influence. This is something that should be avoided in quantitative experimentations. Any personal or subjective interaction with the participants of the experiment or the experiment itself may lead to contaminated results that are unreliable and cannot be well interpreted by future researchers. In a qualitative research model, however, the researcher is a part of the experiment. He may freely interpret the results while having personal involvement in the study. Although still an observer of sorts, this researcher is allowed partiality and can display “empathetic understanding” (Gleshne, Peshkin, 1992, p. 2) to help shape the direction of both the experiment and the hypothesis that develops. These are strong and impacting differences in the designs of research and help lay a foundation of not only how an experiment is processed, but also how the scientific community receives it. Moreover, a researcher must take certain care that he does not implement certain techniques in a research study that would equate the other design. If a qualitative approach is given in a quantitative research experiment and vice versa, it will damage the study irrevocably.
One last difference between the qualitative and quantitative design is the way research is carried out when considering the design that is used. In a quantitative model of research, control is a major factor that enables the experimenter to attain the variables that may be present and manipulate the experiment to consider and execute those variable to an advantage. A qualitative study will not control the factors in that manner, but rather observe participants in a natural setting along with any variables that are involved. An example of this would be a researcher conducting a quantitative research experiment on the effects of learning in a stressful environment among adult males. This experiment would be performed with a controlled group in which a certain number of people are selected with similar aspects in order to conduct an experiment. A hypothesis is constructed before this experiment takes place with the intent of proving that hypothesis. With a qualitative effort of research, a researcher may simply observe a native village and the people who inhabit it to understand behavior. A hypothesis is formed after the research and built upon the observations that took place.
Quantitative and qualitative research designs are both intricate approaches to scientific discovery. They both have many differences in the nature of the research along with the intended results. Responsibility lies with the researcher who must delegate the proper tools to ensure that the design is carried out in its correct form. Despite the empirical distinctions that are between these designs, there is a shared unity in that they both are used to come closer to a discovery and allow for understanding and definition to take place.
References
Davis, S. F., & Smith, R. A. (2009). The Psychologist as Detective. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An
introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Hopkins, W. (2000). Quantitative research design. Retrieved from
http://www.sportsci.org/jour/0001/wghdesign.html.
Patton, M. (2001). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Stevens, M. (2009). Selected qualitative methods. Retrieved from
http://symptomresearch.nih.gov/chapter_7/sec4/cmss4pg1.htm.
Jeannette Villatoro
BKF9454A
Professor Alina Perez
November 10, 2009
Abstract
Qualitative and quantitative research are fascinating designs that can interpret and articulate a vast majority of interesting psychological topics. The two designs differ greatly in the techniques of measure that are utilized along with the intended principle of the studies being conducted. Although different measures and practices may be in place that separates the two models, similarities in detection make the qualitative and quantitative research methods closely related with the ability to compliment one another with explosive learning opportunities that propels science forward.
Design Differences
Research is an imperatively significant aspect of psychology that allow understanding and new discovery to emerge. Two types of research that may be utilized are the quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative research is based more on the experience of the participant and documenting the findings of the research from the participant’s own view. Qualitative research deals with systematic data that is used to describe the results of a study. While both methods are quite lucrative for the purpose of gathering information, there are many characteristics that exemplify these methods of research. This author will attempt to uncover some of the characteristics underlying these methods of research, the benefits of each method and the contrast between the characteristics that make these methods so unique.
Qualitative research is designated to collect data and observe behavior as it occurs. Because of this facet of qualitative research, a researcher or experimenter can only speculate as to the causation of the experiment whereas qualitative research performs certain methods to try and uncover the actual cause and effect of a certain experiment. While qualitative research depends on the opinions and behaviors of others, quantitative research delves into why these behaviors occur through experimentation or the relationship between variables through descriptive methods (Hopkins, 2000). Since descriptive methods “do not involve the manipulation of an independent variable”, they vary from experimental methods quite intensely (Davis, Smith, 2009, p. 59). Furthermore, qualitative data tends to focus on smaller groups of participants with rich details about each individual. Quantitative research deals with more people and hopes to accomplish a generalization of the populations being examined (Davis, Smith, 2009). Because there are different outcomes that may result from the different research methods, it is important to understand the different ways in which these studies are conducted and how these may differ depending on the nature of the design.
Sampling is a common technique in research that helps discover viable results. Although it is an effective technique, it is very labor intensive (Stevens, 2009). There are various sampling methods that can be utilized in research, dependent on whether it is a qualitative or quantitative study. Usually sampling entails selecting certain groups of individuals from a larger group of people for a research study (Davis, Smith, 2009). Purposeful sampling is a deliberate method of sampling that is used to gain the insight of others on a certain topic of interest. The objective is for a researcher to select “information-rich cases for study in depth” (Patton, 2001). With purposeful sampling, a researcher will choose a select group of individuals based on certain characteristics. These characteristics may include age, sex, income and other variables. However, with quantitative research there is a random selection of people when sampling is done. The reason for random sampling is to ensure that certain variables that cannot be changed will not affect the findings (Davis, Smith, 2009). This is imperative for a quantitative experiment to hold dignity and show validity through its findings. The differences between non-random sampling and random sampling are strong and equate whether quantitative and qualitative research measures are taken to provide comprehensive results.
Another important factor of research is the researcher himself. His involvement and interpretation of the experiment is very valuable and also can even be debilitating depending on which research method is being used. If a researcher is conducting a quantitative experiment, he must be impartial and detached with an objective portrayal (Gleshne, Peshkin, 1992). In essence, while it is important to weed out the extraneous variables that may have a causal relationship with other variables in the experiment, the researcher and his interaction in the study can become an extraneous variable itself with a strong influence. This is something that should be avoided in quantitative experimentations. Any personal or subjective interaction with the participants of the experiment or the experiment itself may lead to contaminated results that are unreliable and cannot be well interpreted by future researchers. In a qualitative research model, however, the researcher is a part of the experiment. He may freely interpret the results while having personal involvement in the study. Although still an observer of sorts, this researcher is allowed partiality and can display “empathetic understanding” (Gleshne, Peshkin, 1992, p. 2) to help shape the direction of both the experiment and the hypothesis that develops. These are strong and impacting differences in the designs of research and help lay a foundation of not only how an experiment is processed, but also how the scientific community receives it. Moreover, a researcher must take certain care that he does not implement certain techniques in a research study that would equate the other design. If a qualitative approach is given in a quantitative research experiment and vice versa, it will damage the study irrevocably.
One last difference between the qualitative and quantitative design is the way research is carried out when considering the design that is used. In a quantitative model of research, control is a major factor that enables the experimenter to attain the variables that may be present and manipulate the experiment to consider and execute those variable to an advantage. A qualitative study will not control the factors in that manner, but rather observe participants in a natural setting along with any variables that are involved. An example of this would be a researcher conducting a quantitative research experiment on the effects of learning in a stressful environment among adult males. This experiment would be performed with a controlled group in which a certain number of people are selected with similar aspects in order to conduct an experiment. A hypothesis is constructed before this experiment takes place with the intent of proving that hypothesis. With a qualitative effort of research, a researcher may simply observe a native village and the people who inhabit it to understand behavior. A hypothesis is formed after the research and built upon the observations that took place.
Quantitative and qualitative research designs are both intricate approaches to scientific discovery. They both have many differences in the nature of the research along with the intended results. Responsibility lies with the researcher who must delegate the proper tools to ensure that the design is carried out in its correct form. Despite the empirical distinctions that are between these designs, there is a shared unity in that they both are used to come closer to a discovery and allow for understanding and definition to take place.
References
Davis, S. F., & Smith, R. A. (2009). The Psychologist as Detective. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An
introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Hopkins, W. (2000). Quantitative research design. Retrieved from
http://www.sportsci.org/jour/0001/wghdesign.html.
Patton, M. (2001). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Stevens, M. (2009). Selected qualitative methods. Retrieved from
http://symptomresearch.nih.gov/chapter_7/sec4/cmss4pg1.htm.
Thursday, September 24, 2009
The Impact of Neurophysiology ©
The Impact of Neurophysiology on Learning
Jeannette Villatoro
BKJ0934A
Professor Susan Robertson
September 07, 2009
The Impact of Neurophysiology on Learning
Learning is a fundamental aspect of life that every human being experiences and in some degree relies on for survival and progression. Learning takes place in a variety of ways and changes in an instant depending on many variables. With the importance of learning being a major interest in psychology, theories of learning have been introduced and continually improved throughout the history of time. Neurophysiology is a remarkable study in learning that focuses on how the brain and body coexist and work together to bring action upon learning. This author will attempt to define and explore neurophysiology, discuss the impact it has on the learning process, and uncover how understanding the nature of neurophysiology can impact the study of psychology in today’s world.
Neurophysiology
Philosophy was rampant centuries ago as many scientists were moved toward this quest of wisdom and intellect (Hartfield, 1998). What many philosophers fumbled upon was the contemplation of how the brain functioned. This led to the intent to prove or disprove the existence of a soul and the correlation between physical presence with psychological motivation. René Descartes was one philosopher who was strikingly thorough and intense with his deliberations of the brain and mind back in the 16th century. The problem, however, was that Descartes had no way to actually study the nervous system. He found himself concentrating on the fascinating statues that were powered and controlled in the Royal Gardens at Saint-Germain and realized that the human body was a complicated mechanical instrument that was similar to a “piece of plumbing” (Carlson, 2005, p. 23). This led to a strong desire to uncover the mystery of the brain and how it relates to the nervous system. With the birth of psychological study, many theorists and psychologists aimed to unearth the dimensions of learning in capacity with the mind. Separation of the mind and body soon became a desired pursuit in psychology (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). What later progressed was an understanding that it is the relationship between the mind and body that made learning capable rather than the severance of the two distinctive elements.
Some particular studies in early physiology and neuroscience propelled this area of psychology to the forefront. One study conducted by early theorist Rene Descartes (Hartfield, 1998) was brought about in response to a psychological inquiry about binocular single vision. Human beings and most other creatures have two eyes; yet see only one object in single vision. How this phenomenon is realized became an interest and Descartes sought answers (Hartfield, 1998). Descartes proposed a “physiological unification of the binocular stimulation in the optic chiasma” (Hartfield, 1998, p. 389). Further along in his study he discovered that these optic stimuli were delivered to separate sides of the brain, which alluded to the gradual study of the physiological nature of the mind and body.
Another great contributor to the science of neurophysiology in the delicate stages of its discovery was physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington. He concentrated his efforts distinctly on the nervous system and carried the study to unique proportions that included the processes that neurons have in the brain. He later was able to discern the functions of certain neurons as well as deliver astounding discovery of “the anatomical concepts of the neuron and synapse” (Eccles, J., 1957. p. 218) and how these particular areas of the brain in relation to one another promotes learning and behavior to abound. Sherrington’s accomplishments sprouted new developments in neurophysiology in a time period that had many limitations on such measures of study.
With the major intellectual donations that such philosophers and physiologists have made throughout history, the study of neurophysiology boomed within the psychological industry and not only tested prior belief systems of the nervous system but also endorsed new development in the area. Neurophysiology, considered a new science of the brain, has since swept through psychology with a great force. The physiology of the nervous system and the connection of this with the theories of learning have stimulated many questions about how the mind and body function in a marriage to promote human progression.
Neurophysiology and Learning
Neurophysiology has been a progressive study in the field of psychology, specifically with learning theories. Essentially, how we learn is not only the way to dissect the workings of the mind and body, but how a person relates to their environment and executes the learning process. How a person learns and how they implement that learning is an extraordinary process that can be affected by external and internal forces; biological and environmental factors.
Many learning theorists continued Descartes’ desire to reach understanding in the physiological aspects of psychology and how we learn. Donald Olding Hebb later developed a theory that inspired the belief that “infants are born with a neural network with random interconnections” (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005, p. 379). Sensory experiences, according to Hebb, cause this neural network to make sense of the connections and become organized in a capacity for interaction with the environment to be successful (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). This offered a major shift in the study of neural science in that it begged to include the important effects of environmental impacts on the study of learning.
Because neurophysiology deals with the atmosphere of the physical body and the internal messages that are transmitted to reach a desired behavior or action, there is a close association with learning. The body itself learns as well as the human being learns in a mental standpoint. The nervous system controls the bodily functions and the brain’s reaction to certain outside influences as well as inside biological needs and occurrences. One study in particular that was conducted on guinea pigs showed how learning can be affected and even ignited by the intensity of synaptic pathways of certain neurons by analyzing the anterior cingulate cortex (McCormick, Connors, Lighthall, Prince, 1985).
Behavioral learning experiments often aim to measure “the model parameters and unobserved cognitive processes” (Prerau, Smith, Eden, Kubota, Yanike, Suzuki, Graybiel, Brown, 2009, p. 1) through continuous recorded observation and binary observation. According to Prerau, et al., “although both types of performance measures are often recorded simultaneously, the two are not used in combination to evaluate learning” (Prerau, et al., 2009, p. 1). This may pose difficulty in discerning the relationship between both continuous and binary observation, however, the experiment uses a state-space model of learning to estimate the likelihood of each behavior separately and combined through an algorithm that approximates expectation maximization (Prerau, et al., 2009). This kind of data collection helps capture relative phenomenon in regard to neurotransmissions and how this affects behavior that is displayed in action.
The central nervous system is a predominant area of concentration in neurophysiology. The nervous system is the network in which messages are transmitted to various parts of the body. Neurotransmitters are chemical messages that respond to an action potentioal that attempts to make something occur within the brain (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). In quintessence, the central nervous system is the entity that controls the interactions between the brain and body. Therefore, there is no wonder that it is a strong influence on neurophysiology. The central nervous system ministers to our ability to learn and act upon the learning that occurs.
The neurotransmitters in the brain are fundamental to behavior and neurophysiology. The body and the conscious have a unique marriage of duality that incorporate physical and mental processes to take place. How one reacts to the environment surrounding them in addition to adapting to an environment that is ever changing is basis on many factors with some being biological in nature. The communication between neurons is an important place to start when trying to discern how the nervous system controls behavior. Neurons have a core function of communicating for a purpose that will “gather sensory information, make plans, and initiate behaviors” (Carlson, 2005, p. 48). This is done through synaptic transmission, which allows messages to be carried by neurotransmitters through terminal buttons. In essence, this is how neurons communicate and is the beginning of the learning process.
Stimulation that occurs in an environment that is dangerous or should be avoided can be learned through behavior. When a person faces such a situation, they have the opportunity to recognize the facts and make an action in response. Moreover, that person will also incur learning that will aid in the evasion of such situations in the future. Learning in itself is a learning experience that can be never-ending. As Carlson states, “learning produces changes in the way we perceive, act, think, and feel” (Carlson, 2005, p. 361).
Motor learning is one of the basic modes of learning and involves changes in the neural circuits that control a person’s movement. Even so, motor learning is guided by sensory stimuli (Carlson, 2005). Relational learning is perhaps the most multifaceted type of learning that has to do with the nervous system, neural communication and a behavioral reaction to stimuli. Therefore, the brain and nervous system are the most intrinsic aspects of learning and behavior in the human body. Damage to these areas will stunt motor skills and can adherently modify behavior and learning. Neurophysiology aims to identify the ways in which the nervous system and brain elicit learning and behavior so that corrections can be made in an adversary circumstance.
Neurons are fascinating entities that connect and transmit messages to allow for behavior to follow. However, environmental objects that one experiences has a stimulating affect that results in a complex pattern of neurons (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). As Donald Hebb purported, these cell assemblies can be changed by our perception and identification of certain objects. Not only do our neurons stimulate behavior and learning from environmental influence, but the environment can most certainly have a an effect on the way neurons function. This theory proposes that learning takes place within us internally as well as externally among the environment in which we find ourselves. And naturally, both scenarios are ever changing and constantly evolving which makes the process of learning complex with a deliverance of new information to be gained frequently among the field of neurophysiology.
The future of Neurophysiology
It is evident that the study of neurophysiology is crucial to the study of psychology. With the vast amount of resources available and the speed in which technology is growing, neurophysiology is moving quickly into the future. When applying the theories of learning to the distinctive characteristics of neuro-based science, the clinical aspect of neurophysiology becomes pronounced to jumpstart the understanding of how the human being learns. According to Jasper Daube, by studying the functions of the nervous system in a clinical setting, we will be able to utilize the information for “diagnostics, intensive care, and intraoperative monitoring” (Daube, J., 2009. p. 1). This allows neurophysiology to not only diagnose and treat disorders but to allow the learning process to continually flourish with the new developments of the nervous system and brain.
Learning has a solid place in the future of neurophysiology. According to Carlson, “Electrical stimulation of circuits within the hippocampal formation can lead to long-term synaptic changes that seem to be among those responsible for learning” (Carlson, 2005, p. 362). This means that induction of long-term potential can bring about future discoveries in the important region of the brian; the temporal lobe.
Society has a major role in the future of neurophysiology. It is a science that is the basis of medical practice and must be nurtured incessantly. The bridge between psychology and the medical aspects of the field blend eloquently with one another when neurophysiology is given proper attention. As Irving Zucker said, “the society’s future and indeed the discipline of physiology depend critically on our ability to adapt, change, and grow” (Zucker, 2008, p.3).
Presently, we utilize measure of study that helps us achieve understanding of neural activity. This kind of knowledge propels neurophysiology into the future. By recording the brain’s metabolic and synaptic activity, we are able to witness increase in activity in certain regions of the brain, metabolic rates, and the chemicals that work to produce physiological changes and subsequently enable learning to occur and behavior to be manifested. Psychology will always introduce a study or theory that shifts the paradigm of how physiology works (Zucker, 2008). The continued effort of neuroscientists and physiologists must direct the attention toward the new approach that these changes present.
The ultimate goal for the future of neurophysiology is to determine the beginning progression of abnormalities in nervous system development in uterus. This could potentially inhibit destructive disorders from causing damage and preventing such abnormalities to occur. Clinicians would be able to diagnose and correct many developmental problems that are troubling to a newborn child with poor nervous system and brain functioning. Although this may be a desired outcome for the study of neurophysiology, there is a long way before such miraculous objectives can be gained.
The beginning of neurophysiology was sparked by a curiosity of how the nervous system works in relation to our thoughts and behaviors. By examining the nervous system and the brain, it was gradually made aware that learning is an ongoing process that is directly influenced by the biological nature of one’s self. Neurophysiology is vibrant with aspects of both science and psychology that coexist for the purpose of identifying causal symptoms of learning and behavior. The human body and mind are as complicated as the conscience and by relishing the idiosyncratic components of each dimension, studies can continue to be useful in the field of neurophysiology and how it impacts the learning process of human beings.
References
Carlson, N. (2005) Foundations of physiological psychology (sixth edition).Boston,
Massachusetts: Pearson Education.
Daube, J. (2003). Basic neurophysiology. Retrieved from
http://www.neurophys.com/Basic_Neurophysiology/.
Eccles, J. (1957). Some aspects of Sherrington's contribution to neurophysiology. Notes
and Records of the Royal Society of London, 12(2), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/530837.
Hartfield, G. (1998). The brain's "new" science: psychology, neurophysiology, and
constraint. Philosophy of Science, 67, Retrieved September 7, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/188682.
Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson, M. (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th
edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
McCormick, D., Connors, B., Lighthall, J., & Prince, D. (1985). Comparative
electrophysiology of pyramidal and sparsely spiny stellate neurons of the neocortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 54(4), 1.
Prerau, M, Smith, A, Eden, U, Kubota, Y, & Yanike, M (2009). Characterizing learning
by simultaneous analysis of continuous and binary measures of performance. Journal of Neuropsychology, 50(5), Retrieved from http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/91251.2008v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=learning&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT.
Zucker, I. (2008). Through the looking glass: The future of physiology. passion,
responsibility and morality in science . The Physiologist, 51(2), Retrieved from http://www.the-aps.org/publications/tphys/2008html/April/81president.htm.
Jeannette,
This is an outstanding paper in all respects. I can think of nothing else to say except that it is my hope you will move on to graduate school. Best of luck!
Jeannette Villatoro
BKJ0934A
Professor Susan Robertson
September 07, 2009
The Impact of Neurophysiology on Learning
Learning is a fundamental aspect of life that every human being experiences and in some degree relies on for survival and progression. Learning takes place in a variety of ways and changes in an instant depending on many variables. With the importance of learning being a major interest in psychology, theories of learning have been introduced and continually improved throughout the history of time. Neurophysiology is a remarkable study in learning that focuses on how the brain and body coexist and work together to bring action upon learning. This author will attempt to define and explore neurophysiology, discuss the impact it has on the learning process, and uncover how understanding the nature of neurophysiology can impact the study of psychology in today’s world.
Neurophysiology
Philosophy was rampant centuries ago as many scientists were moved toward this quest of wisdom and intellect (Hartfield, 1998). What many philosophers fumbled upon was the contemplation of how the brain functioned. This led to the intent to prove or disprove the existence of a soul and the correlation between physical presence with psychological motivation. René Descartes was one philosopher who was strikingly thorough and intense with his deliberations of the brain and mind back in the 16th century. The problem, however, was that Descartes had no way to actually study the nervous system. He found himself concentrating on the fascinating statues that were powered and controlled in the Royal Gardens at Saint-Germain and realized that the human body was a complicated mechanical instrument that was similar to a “piece of plumbing” (Carlson, 2005, p. 23). This led to a strong desire to uncover the mystery of the brain and how it relates to the nervous system. With the birth of psychological study, many theorists and psychologists aimed to unearth the dimensions of learning in capacity with the mind. Separation of the mind and body soon became a desired pursuit in psychology (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). What later progressed was an understanding that it is the relationship between the mind and body that made learning capable rather than the severance of the two distinctive elements.
Some particular studies in early physiology and neuroscience propelled this area of psychology to the forefront. One study conducted by early theorist Rene Descartes (Hartfield, 1998) was brought about in response to a psychological inquiry about binocular single vision. Human beings and most other creatures have two eyes; yet see only one object in single vision. How this phenomenon is realized became an interest and Descartes sought answers (Hartfield, 1998). Descartes proposed a “physiological unification of the binocular stimulation in the optic chiasma” (Hartfield, 1998, p. 389). Further along in his study he discovered that these optic stimuli were delivered to separate sides of the brain, which alluded to the gradual study of the physiological nature of the mind and body.
Another great contributor to the science of neurophysiology in the delicate stages of its discovery was physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington. He concentrated his efforts distinctly on the nervous system and carried the study to unique proportions that included the processes that neurons have in the brain. He later was able to discern the functions of certain neurons as well as deliver astounding discovery of “the anatomical concepts of the neuron and synapse” (Eccles, J., 1957. p. 218) and how these particular areas of the brain in relation to one another promotes learning and behavior to abound. Sherrington’s accomplishments sprouted new developments in neurophysiology in a time period that had many limitations on such measures of study.
With the major intellectual donations that such philosophers and physiologists have made throughout history, the study of neurophysiology boomed within the psychological industry and not only tested prior belief systems of the nervous system but also endorsed new development in the area. Neurophysiology, considered a new science of the brain, has since swept through psychology with a great force. The physiology of the nervous system and the connection of this with the theories of learning have stimulated many questions about how the mind and body function in a marriage to promote human progression.
Neurophysiology and Learning
Neurophysiology has been a progressive study in the field of psychology, specifically with learning theories. Essentially, how we learn is not only the way to dissect the workings of the mind and body, but how a person relates to their environment and executes the learning process. How a person learns and how they implement that learning is an extraordinary process that can be affected by external and internal forces; biological and environmental factors.
Many learning theorists continued Descartes’ desire to reach understanding in the physiological aspects of psychology and how we learn. Donald Olding Hebb later developed a theory that inspired the belief that “infants are born with a neural network with random interconnections” (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005, p. 379). Sensory experiences, according to Hebb, cause this neural network to make sense of the connections and become organized in a capacity for interaction with the environment to be successful (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). This offered a major shift in the study of neural science in that it begged to include the important effects of environmental impacts on the study of learning.
Because neurophysiology deals with the atmosphere of the physical body and the internal messages that are transmitted to reach a desired behavior or action, there is a close association with learning. The body itself learns as well as the human being learns in a mental standpoint. The nervous system controls the bodily functions and the brain’s reaction to certain outside influences as well as inside biological needs and occurrences. One study in particular that was conducted on guinea pigs showed how learning can be affected and even ignited by the intensity of synaptic pathways of certain neurons by analyzing the anterior cingulate cortex (McCormick, Connors, Lighthall, Prince, 1985).
Behavioral learning experiments often aim to measure “the model parameters and unobserved cognitive processes” (Prerau, Smith, Eden, Kubota, Yanike, Suzuki, Graybiel, Brown, 2009, p. 1) through continuous recorded observation and binary observation. According to Prerau, et al., “although both types of performance measures are often recorded simultaneously, the two are not used in combination to evaluate learning” (Prerau, et al., 2009, p. 1). This may pose difficulty in discerning the relationship between both continuous and binary observation, however, the experiment uses a state-space model of learning to estimate the likelihood of each behavior separately and combined through an algorithm that approximates expectation maximization (Prerau, et al., 2009). This kind of data collection helps capture relative phenomenon in regard to neurotransmissions and how this affects behavior that is displayed in action.
The central nervous system is a predominant area of concentration in neurophysiology. The nervous system is the network in which messages are transmitted to various parts of the body. Neurotransmitters are chemical messages that respond to an action potentioal that attempts to make something occur within the brain (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). In quintessence, the central nervous system is the entity that controls the interactions between the brain and body. Therefore, there is no wonder that it is a strong influence on neurophysiology. The central nervous system ministers to our ability to learn and act upon the learning that occurs.
The neurotransmitters in the brain are fundamental to behavior and neurophysiology. The body and the conscious have a unique marriage of duality that incorporate physical and mental processes to take place. How one reacts to the environment surrounding them in addition to adapting to an environment that is ever changing is basis on many factors with some being biological in nature. The communication between neurons is an important place to start when trying to discern how the nervous system controls behavior. Neurons have a core function of communicating for a purpose that will “gather sensory information, make plans, and initiate behaviors” (Carlson, 2005, p. 48). This is done through synaptic transmission, which allows messages to be carried by neurotransmitters through terminal buttons. In essence, this is how neurons communicate and is the beginning of the learning process.
Stimulation that occurs in an environment that is dangerous or should be avoided can be learned through behavior. When a person faces such a situation, they have the opportunity to recognize the facts and make an action in response. Moreover, that person will also incur learning that will aid in the evasion of such situations in the future. Learning in itself is a learning experience that can be never-ending. As Carlson states, “learning produces changes in the way we perceive, act, think, and feel” (Carlson, 2005, p. 361).
Motor learning is one of the basic modes of learning and involves changes in the neural circuits that control a person’s movement. Even so, motor learning is guided by sensory stimuli (Carlson, 2005). Relational learning is perhaps the most multifaceted type of learning that has to do with the nervous system, neural communication and a behavioral reaction to stimuli. Therefore, the brain and nervous system are the most intrinsic aspects of learning and behavior in the human body. Damage to these areas will stunt motor skills and can adherently modify behavior and learning. Neurophysiology aims to identify the ways in which the nervous system and brain elicit learning and behavior so that corrections can be made in an adversary circumstance.
Neurons are fascinating entities that connect and transmit messages to allow for behavior to follow. However, environmental objects that one experiences has a stimulating affect that results in a complex pattern of neurons (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). As Donald Hebb purported, these cell assemblies can be changed by our perception and identification of certain objects. Not only do our neurons stimulate behavior and learning from environmental influence, but the environment can most certainly have a an effect on the way neurons function. This theory proposes that learning takes place within us internally as well as externally among the environment in which we find ourselves. And naturally, both scenarios are ever changing and constantly evolving which makes the process of learning complex with a deliverance of new information to be gained frequently among the field of neurophysiology.
The future of Neurophysiology
It is evident that the study of neurophysiology is crucial to the study of psychology. With the vast amount of resources available and the speed in which technology is growing, neurophysiology is moving quickly into the future. When applying the theories of learning to the distinctive characteristics of neuro-based science, the clinical aspect of neurophysiology becomes pronounced to jumpstart the understanding of how the human being learns. According to Jasper Daube, by studying the functions of the nervous system in a clinical setting, we will be able to utilize the information for “diagnostics, intensive care, and intraoperative monitoring” (Daube, J., 2009. p. 1). This allows neurophysiology to not only diagnose and treat disorders but to allow the learning process to continually flourish with the new developments of the nervous system and brain.
Learning has a solid place in the future of neurophysiology. According to Carlson, “Electrical stimulation of circuits within the hippocampal formation can lead to long-term synaptic changes that seem to be among those responsible for learning” (Carlson, 2005, p. 362). This means that induction of long-term potential can bring about future discoveries in the important region of the brian; the temporal lobe.
Society has a major role in the future of neurophysiology. It is a science that is the basis of medical practice and must be nurtured incessantly. The bridge between psychology and the medical aspects of the field blend eloquently with one another when neurophysiology is given proper attention. As Irving Zucker said, “the society’s future and indeed the discipline of physiology depend critically on our ability to adapt, change, and grow” (Zucker, 2008, p.3).
Presently, we utilize measure of study that helps us achieve understanding of neural activity. This kind of knowledge propels neurophysiology into the future. By recording the brain’s metabolic and synaptic activity, we are able to witness increase in activity in certain regions of the brain, metabolic rates, and the chemicals that work to produce physiological changes and subsequently enable learning to occur and behavior to be manifested. Psychology will always introduce a study or theory that shifts the paradigm of how physiology works (Zucker, 2008). The continued effort of neuroscientists and physiologists must direct the attention toward the new approach that these changes present.
The ultimate goal for the future of neurophysiology is to determine the beginning progression of abnormalities in nervous system development in uterus. This could potentially inhibit destructive disorders from causing damage and preventing such abnormalities to occur. Clinicians would be able to diagnose and correct many developmental problems that are troubling to a newborn child with poor nervous system and brain functioning. Although this may be a desired outcome for the study of neurophysiology, there is a long way before such miraculous objectives can be gained.
The beginning of neurophysiology was sparked by a curiosity of how the nervous system works in relation to our thoughts and behaviors. By examining the nervous system and the brain, it was gradually made aware that learning is an ongoing process that is directly influenced by the biological nature of one’s self. Neurophysiology is vibrant with aspects of both science and psychology that coexist for the purpose of identifying causal symptoms of learning and behavior. The human body and mind are as complicated as the conscience and by relishing the idiosyncratic components of each dimension, studies can continue to be useful in the field of neurophysiology and how it impacts the learning process of human beings.
References
Carlson, N. (2005) Foundations of physiological psychology (sixth edition).Boston,
Massachusetts: Pearson Education.
Daube, J. (2003). Basic neurophysiology. Retrieved from
http://www.neurophys.com/Basic_Neurophysiology/.
Eccles, J. (1957). Some aspects of Sherrington's contribution to neurophysiology. Notes
and Records of the Royal Society of London, 12(2), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/530837.
Hartfield, G. (1998). The brain's "new" science: psychology, neurophysiology, and
constraint. Philosophy of Science, 67, Retrieved September 7, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/188682.
Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson, M. (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th
edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
McCormick, D., Connors, B., Lighthall, J., & Prince, D. (1985). Comparative
electrophysiology of pyramidal and sparsely spiny stellate neurons of the neocortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 54(4), 1.
Prerau, M, Smith, A, Eden, U, Kubota, Y, & Yanike, M (2009). Characterizing learning
by simultaneous analysis of continuous and binary measures of performance. Journal of Neuropsychology, 50(5), Retrieved from http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/91251.2008v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=learning&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT.
Zucker, I. (2008). Through the looking glass: The future of physiology. passion,
responsibility and morality in science . The Physiologist, 51(2), Retrieved from http://www.the-aps.org/publications/tphys/2008html/April/81president.htm.
Jeannette,
This is an outstanding paper in all respects. I can think of nothing else to say except that it is my hope you will move on to graduate school. Best of luck!
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