Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
Jeannette Villatoro
Statistics BKE1112A
April 18, 2011
Brianne Gilbert
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
Introduction
Child aggression is a topic of interest for any parent and for society as a whole. Aggression can create a multitude of problems for children including advanced anger issues, violence, and depression. Additionally, video games are a top form of entertainment for children and the use and development of video games is steadily growing. According to Anderson and Bushman, “about 10% of children aged 2 to 18 play console and computer video games more than 1 hour per day (Anderson & Bushman, 2001, p. 353)”.
Due to the prominence of violence in video games, it is important to study the correlation between video game violence and child aggression. Studies may become successful in deriving answers to this dilemma through utilization of mixed method research studies and an incorporation of observational data and surveys of participants. Correlational studies are imperative to this dilemma of child aggression and video game violence and the goal is to search for a sustainable correlation, evaluate results, and eventually change the culture of video game entertainment to reduce the impediment of child aggression in society.
Statement of the Problem
Aggressive behavior in children is a concern for many parents. Aggression usually builds and becomes more of an aggravating circumstance and can be fueled by anger, fear, low self-esteem, anxiety from a lack of control and a combination of these factors (Department of Family and Consumer Studies, 2010). Aggression is a serious matter because of the problematic emotional development that can occur with a child displaying consistent aggressive tendencies. Furthermore, the child will continue to cope with situations in an aggressive manner if not addressed properly. The reactions others may have to aggression may be fear, avoidance, or submission to the behavior, enabling the child with aggression to have control, and this can possibly encourage the aggressive behavior to continue.
Because of the negative effects of aggression on children as well as families and other peers, the topic of child aggression should be forcefully explored. It is imperative to reinforce positive behavior by teaching a better way for children to express themselves. To understand why aggression is an issue, caregivers must try and discern the causes of the aggressive behavior (Department of Family and Consumer Studies, 2010). Emotions, tiredness, and other internal mechanisms may be a factor. However, there are environmental factors and other elements that can be considered to be a stimulant to aggression. Studies on aggression have become more extensive and research has suggested different approaches to the onset of aggression. One of the well-received approaches to aggression is the social learning theory in which aggression is learned initially through social interaction and is maintained by other conditions (Smith, 2008). With this theory of aggression, operant conditioning is also a factor. This theory would support the hypotheses that violent video games promote aggressive behavior through rewarding the violent activity with coins and other incentives related to the game.
Violence is rampant in our culture and steadily rising. Technology is growing rapidly as well. Entertainment is also on a steady rise, and various forms of entertainment are now related to technology in vast ways, and seemingly following the wave of growth in violence. One of the most popular forms of entertainment, fueled by advanced technology, is video games. This industry is embracing the depiction of violent images for sale growth more so than previous decades. Video games are a popular form of entertainment because of the player’s ability to manipulate the sequences of events. However, the development and sales of video games reflect an alarming rise in ratings valued for maturity, causing entertainment to be commonly assessed in a violent manner.
René Weber, an assistant professor at Michigan State University and the conductor of a research study on this issue stated, “m-rated games contain concerning violence: that is, realistic, rewarded and justified violent activities of attractive perpetrators in real-life settings” (Michigan State University, 2005, p. 1). Weber conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging study on 13 male research participants to prove a correlation between aggressiveness and violent video games (Michigan State University, 2005). Brain activity of the participants were recorded and analyzed as the participants played violent video games. This study showed a link between the characteristic regions of interest in the brain that shows aggressiveness and the participants playing the violent games (Michigan State University, 2005). According to Weber, “there is a neurological link and there is a short-term causal relationship” (Michigan State University, 2005). This discovery justifies further research into the phenomenon of aggression and how it may be enhanced through violent interactive play, especially when considering young children.
Video game violence has shown to exude certain types of encouragement for these negative aggressive behaviors in children in addition to somehow producing the aggressive tendencies. Simply eliminating video game use is not a feasible solution; yet discerning the direct impact video game violence has on these negative childhood behaviors may help to impede further issues. Moreover, targeting the aggression is necessary to avoid furtherance of its consequences and to help children recognize and avoid violence in media as an influential aspect of their own behaviors.
Literature Review
Though levels of violence may differ in strength and multitude in the immense array of video games available on the market, violence is highly evident in most video games being produced these days. Because of this, it is important to study the correlation between video game violence and child aggression. Through evaluation of mixed method research studies, the variables of child aggression and violent video games can be purported to be correlated. After reviewing several articles on child aggression and correlations with this behavior, it appeared that many research concepts have been formulated based on video game violence and child aggression. This is a previously studied topic, yet most research studies fixated on long term observation rather than direct or immediate scrutiny. Furthermore, other research studies on violent video games and child aggression lacked a qualitative approach in which the participants were surveyed to incorporate the perspectives of the subjects of the study directly into the findings.
The idea of this particular topic is built on the strong realization that previous studies and literature pertaining to the topic in question, either the correlation of variables together or each of the variables independently, has brought understanding and depth to the field of psychology and child development. Through reviewing previous studies on video game violence and child aggression, it became evident that a correlation exists between these variables. Because this is a social science study, a cause and effect is not measurable, but the correlation seems strongly apparent through most of the reviewed literature. Furthermore, the knowledge and application gained from these literature reviews will serve as a foundational understanding of the issue and proper methods of approaching the research.
In a study conducted on child aggression, prosocial behavior, and empathy, statistical results showed that not only do children have difficulty differentiating acceptable behaviors when frustration or anger ensues, but that empathy was lacking when consequences of violence were evident (Anderson, et al., 2001). It is further found in this study that violent video games have a strong correlation with child aggression and antisocial behaviors (Anders, et al., 2001).
With an oppositional focus, one researcher conducted a study that resulted in a conclusion quite different from most studies on the topic of correlation between childhood aggression and violent video games. Christopher Ferguson, an associate professor at a Texas University, found through his study that violent television and video games were not predictive of aggression (Hunt, 2010). Ferguson purported that no evidence supported that violent media strips children of their natural hesitancy toward killing and this media violence does not seem to teach or encourage such behavior (Hunt, 2010). These findings are interesting, yet it seems lacking in sustenance. The samples were small and unbalanced representations of a large population and the study did not incorporate needed qualitative methodological approaches, neither did this study possess viable observational tactics.
It seems quite plausible to assume, without a research study, that the preponderance and commonality of violence in video games show children that this behavior is somewhat normal. These games go beyond this, in fact, by rewarding the behavior of violence with virtual money and accolades. The normal simulation in the games of life-like cities, scenarios, and people further perpetuate a virtual world quite realistic in presentation. This visualization surely provides a setting of training material for future life scenarios. Additionally, Ferguson goes on to suggest that parents are needed to push the knowledge that violence is wrong rather than blaming the video game industry (Hunt, 2010). While this is a valid and honorable point, parenthood is a state in which a constant battle with environment is to be had, and parents can only teach so much before the teachings are noticeably in contradiction of what seems to be the norm of violence and the acceptance of aggressive behavior. Parents can indeed prevent such games from being played, but in doing so may simply be protecting their children from a world of media violence that awaits them at any stage or age in life and thus must be addressed and conquered considerably early in childhood development.
Findings
Most studies in this realm have had purposeful sampling methods imposed. Purposeful sampling targets subjects that have certain characteristics (Siegle, 1998). The characteristics that are needed for this sampling are children of a specific age group that regularly play video games for recreation. The specific type of purposeful sampling is ideally homogenous because of the basic similarities chosen within the groups and the need to simplify the analysis to focus specifically on the independent and dependent variables (Siegle, 1998). Most of these studies illustrated these needs with interesting results.
A correlation was definitely found in most studies conducted on this topic, in studies specifically targeting the facets of childhood aggression and video game violence, and studies that delve into correlated issues revolving around media violence and actual violence and aggression. Although some studies may show no effect, it is a causational failure rather than correlational failure found between childhood aggression and video game violence. Therefore, the argument is strong to suggest that a correlation between video game violence and child aggression does exist, and that further studies on this topic of interest are warranted.
Discussion
Violence is a concerning issue in our culture and continues to affect how we live. Not only does violence exist in everyday life, but alarmingly violence has become an accepted, even preferred method of entertainment. Video games in particular are raging with violent images that beckon the user to participate rather than simply watch (Anderson, et al., 2001). Trying to find a correlation between violent video games and aggression may uncover disconcerting findings. While video games are enjoyed by players of all ages, it is significant to focus on a select group. The health and safety of children may be at risk if aggression becomes dominant. Furthermore, a child succumbing to aggression poses a concern for society.
Aggression is a complex issue because it can be approached as biological, psychological, or culturally induced (Farrell, 2002). Although a research study concentrating on the correlation between stimulating violent video games and aggression would fall easily into the cultural aspect of this phenomenon, there are also biological and psychological reactions when aggression abounds. Therefore, a good research study will delve into aggression comprehensively and include all aspects of aggression and all possible variables. When considering aggression, the researcher should have an understanding of theoretical approaches to aggression as well as the factors that can be considered stimulants or antagonists of this behavior.
With a focus on children, the study should take on the perspectives of the parents or caregivers as well as the child. This is highly important because children are in the care of adults and if negative effects occur, there is a high probability of correcting the problem if the adult is enlightened by the new information. Additionally, statistics of video game play should be pursued in this research, including previous studies comprised of this research topic to enhance the findings.
Studies in this field of interest should be qualitative due to the observation that must take place. Children playing the violent video games need to be observed. However, it should be expected that direct aggression may not be witnessed during the study, and aggression cannot be ruled out if this is the case due to the biological and psychological elements of this behavior. Therefore, further studies on this topic may find it appropriate to complete the research with quantitative methods such as surveys that assess the attitudes and perceptions of the children after playing violent video games.
Conclusion
A desire for understanding human behavior is a defining interest in our culture and will most likely never cease. This is a fascinating area of study that is expansive with endless possible discoveries to be made. These discoveries can only help perpetuate understanding and change for a better way of life for children and society. Issues such as video game violence are easily overlooked because of the vast acceptance and enjoyment that seems to result from the introduction of such media. With the incredible advancements of technology and a modernized approach to the world we live in continuously changing the way we perceive reality, it is necessary to continue to explore human behavior as it relates to our fluctuating environment. Aggression is a behavior that can be internally formulated or engaged through outside influence. Therefore, it is a relevant area of study that can produce interesting results when coupled with another variable.
It is accepted and encouraged in our culture to protect children from violence. Yet, there are available resources to children that we allow in which can gradually become more detrimental to our children’s health and wellbeing than parents would normally choose to accept. Video games are an acceptable form of entertainment for most children and parents. However, video games increasingly include violence. Furthermore, the interactive aspect of video game play makes violence in video games more dangerous than television or other forms of media that simply display images for viewing. Studies done on this issue have proven to be imperative to help perpetuate an understanding of the negative effects of video game violence on children and hopefully inspire more in-depth studies to continue so that this issue can be addressed in a cultural manner.
References
Anderson, C., & Bushman, B. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 12(5), Retrieved from http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2000-2004/01ab.pdf.
Anderson, C., Ihori, N., Shibuya, A., Swing, E., & Bushman, B. (2001). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: a meta-analytic review. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2010-2014/10ASISBSRS.pdf.
Department of Family and Consumer Studies. (2010). Anger and aggression in young children causes. Retrieved from http://citationmachine.net/index2.php?reqstyleid=2&mode=form&reqsrcid=APAWebPa ge&more=yes&nameCnt=1.
Farrell, A. (2002). Aggression: biological, psychological, and cultural explanations. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro02/web2/afarrell.html.
Hunt, S. (2010). Violent video games do not cause youth aggression. The Blue Banner, Retrieved from http://www.thebluebanner.net/violent-video-games-do-not-cause-youth- aggression-1.1291077.
Michigan State University (2005). Violent Video Games Lead To Brain Activity. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/10/051012082710.htm.
Siegle, D. (1998). Purposive sampling. Retrieved from http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Samples/purposivesampling.htm.
Smith, A. (2008). Theories of aggression. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1809.
Psychological Science, 12(5), Retrieved from http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2000-2004/01ab.pdf.
Tuesday, April 19, 2011
Thursday, February 10, 2011
Shared Environment ©
The search to explain criminal behavior is an ongoing focus in psychological studies. Identifying contributing factors of criminal behavior help to determine how and why a tendency to act criminally may occur in some individuals. The issue of nature vs. nurture has been a prominent issue in psychology and the attempt to uncover the causation of criminal behavior. While nature describes heredity as being an influence to behavior, nurture describes the environment as having a prominent role in psychological behavior (Guirguis, 2004).
One method of probing the issue of nature vs. nurture is by studying the phenomenon of criminal behavior through twin studies, in which researchers discern between genetic and environmental factors (Bartol & Bartol, 2008). A shared environment is an environment shared by the twins in which experiences and upbringing are similar (Bartol & Bartol, 2008). This is an important aspect of genetic research on crime because it incorporates the environment with what may be considered predetermining factors. Therefore, the environment cannot be entirely ruled out of observed behavior. A shared environment can also help distinguish what factors of behavior are more influential by environment and which are more genetically driven. One particular twin study revealed that non-aggressive behavior was significantly affected by the shared environment of the participants, whereas aggressive behavior seemed to be influenced more by genetics (Ishikawa & Raine, 2002).
A shared environment will most likely be responsible for resemblances between family members, whereas a nonshared environment may be comprised of factors that help explain differences between family members (Newell, 1999). Many studies have shown that the influence of a shared environment had more significance on behavior before the age of fifteen while genetic factors showed more relevance after the age of fifteen (Newell, 1999). According to Newell, “research on juvenile delinquency by McGuffin and Gottesman (1985), yielded concordance rated of 87 percent for identical twins and 72 percent for fraternal twins, suggesting only a modest genetic component while implicating a large influence of shared environment for these age groups” (Newell, 2008, p. 23). The persuasive findings of this study show the implications of a child’s upbringing and home environment and how these facets of childhood have a strong impact on behavior. It may also show that genetically influenced behavior has more potential of being modified than the deep-rooted environmental imprint on an individual. This would support the importance of a shared environment in terms of genetic research on crime.
References
Bartol, C., & Bartol, A. (2008). Criminal behavior: a psychological approach (eighth edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/ Prentice Hall.
Guirguis, S. (2004). Nature vs. nurture. Retrieved from http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/courses/classes/NE-
24%20Olander/Equalitarinism_vs_Hereditarinism.htm.
Ishikawa, S., & Raine, A. (2002). Behavioral genetics and crime. Retrieved from http://www- bcf.usc.edu/~raine/Behavioral.Genetics.Crime.pdf.
Newell, C. (1999). Genetic influence on impulse and aggression related crime: a historical
review of
related research data and field research project. Retrieved from http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1140&context=uhp_theses.
One method of probing the issue of nature vs. nurture is by studying the phenomenon of criminal behavior through twin studies, in which researchers discern between genetic and environmental factors (Bartol & Bartol, 2008). A shared environment is an environment shared by the twins in which experiences and upbringing are similar (Bartol & Bartol, 2008). This is an important aspect of genetic research on crime because it incorporates the environment with what may be considered predetermining factors. Therefore, the environment cannot be entirely ruled out of observed behavior. A shared environment can also help distinguish what factors of behavior are more influential by environment and which are more genetically driven. One particular twin study revealed that non-aggressive behavior was significantly affected by the shared environment of the participants, whereas aggressive behavior seemed to be influenced more by genetics (Ishikawa & Raine, 2002).
A shared environment will most likely be responsible for resemblances between family members, whereas a nonshared environment may be comprised of factors that help explain differences between family members (Newell, 1999). Many studies have shown that the influence of a shared environment had more significance on behavior before the age of fifteen while genetic factors showed more relevance after the age of fifteen (Newell, 1999). According to Newell, “research on juvenile delinquency by McGuffin and Gottesman (1985), yielded concordance rated of 87 percent for identical twins and 72 percent for fraternal twins, suggesting only a modest genetic component while implicating a large influence of shared environment for these age groups” (Newell, 2008, p. 23). The persuasive findings of this study show the implications of a child’s upbringing and home environment and how these facets of childhood have a strong impact on behavior. It may also show that genetically influenced behavior has more potential of being modified than the deep-rooted environmental imprint on an individual. This would support the importance of a shared environment in terms of genetic research on crime.
References
Bartol, C., & Bartol, A. (2008). Criminal behavior: a psychological approach (eighth edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/ Prentice Hall.
Guirguis, S. (2004). Nature vs. nurture. Retrieved from http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/courses/classes/NE-
24%20Olander/Equalitarinism_vs_Hereditarinism.htm.
Ishikawa, S., & Raine, A. (2002). Behavioral genetics and crime. Retrieved from http://www- bcf.usc.edu/~raine/Behavioral.Genetics.Crime.pdf.
Newell, C. (1999). Genetic influence on impulse and aggression related crime: a historical
review of
related research data and field research project. Retrieved from http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1140&context=uhp_theses.
Monday, January 31, 2011
Stages of my Research Project (thesis) for my Psychology degree ©
*** As always, please disregard the formatting *** Introduction: So, I am basically conducting a "mock" research study with a qualitative and quantitative (mixed method) approach. I have to prepare a proposal, and set up the project and ultimately conduct this "mock" study to be published. This is all for my Applied Project course to complete the fruition of my BA in Psychology as a thesis project. This post is broken up into stages 1-4 of the project thus far.
STAGE 1
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
My focus was primarily on psychological studies and I read through different journals to try and discover a topic of research that would interest me. I decided that I would want to focus on children within the psychological spectrum of research. After coming across several articles on child aggression and correlations with this behavior, I decided to research video game violence and child aggression. I found several pertinent studies that would help me formulate my focus on this topic.
Aggressive behavior in children is a concern for many parents. Aggression usually builds and becomes more of an aggravating circumstance and can be fueled by anger, fear, low self-esteem, anxiety from a lack of control and a combination of these factors (Department of Family and Consumer Studies, 2010). Aggression is a serious matter because of the problematic emotional development that can occur with a child displaying consistent aggressive tendencies. Furthermore, that child will continue to cope with situations in an aggressive manner if not addressed properly. The reactions others may have to aggression may be fear, avoidance, or submission to the behavior, enabling the child with aggression to have control, and this can possibly encourage the aggressive behavior to continue.
It is imperative to reinforce positive behavior through teaching a better way for children to express themselves. To understand why aggression is an issue, caregivers must try and discern the causes of the aggressive behavior (Department of Family and Consumer Studies, 2010). Emotions, tiredness, and other internal mechanisms may be a factor. However, there are environmental factors and other elements that can be considered to be a stimulant to aggression. Studies on aggression have become more extensive and research has suggested different approaches to the onset of aggression. One of the well-received approaches to aggression is the social learning theory in which aggression is learned initially through social interaction and is maintained by other conditions (Smith, 2008). With this theory of aggression, operant conditioning is also a factor. This theory would support the hypotheses that violent video games promote aggressive behavior through rewarding the violent activity with coins and other incentives related to the game.
Violence is rampant in our culture and steadily rising. Technology is growing rapidly as well. Entertainment is also on a steady rise, and various forms of entertainment are now related to technology in vast ways, and seemingly following the wave of growth in violence. One of the most popular forms of entertainment, fueled by advanced technology, is video games. This industry is embracing the depiction of violent images for sale growth more so than previous decades. Video games are a popular form of entertainment because of the player’s ability to manipulate the sequences of events. However, with video games rated for maturity rising in development and sales, entertainment containing violence has been raised to a new level. René Weber, an assistant professor at Michigan State University and the conductor of a research study on this issue stated, “m-rated games contain concerning violence: that is, realistic, rewarded and justified violent activities of attractive perpetrators in real-life settings” (Michigan State University, 2005, p. 1). Weber conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging study on 13 male research participants to prove a correlation between aggressiveness and violent video games (Michigan State University, 2005). Brain activity of the participants were recorded and analyzed as the participants played violent video games. This study showed a link between the characteristic regions of interest in the brain that shows aggressiveness and the participants playing the violent games (Michigan State University, 2005). According to Weber, “there is a neurological link and there is a short-term causal relationship” (Michigan State University, 2005). This discovery justifies further research into the phenomenon of aggression and how it may be enhanced through violent interactive play, especially when considering young children.
Perspectives
A desire for understanding human behavior is a defining interest in our culture and will most likely never cease. This is a fascinating area of study that expansive with endless possible discoveries to be made. With the incredible advancements of technology and a modernized approach to the world we live in continuously changing the way we perceive reality, it is necessary to continue to explore human behavior as it relates to our fluctuating environment. Aggression is a behavior that can be internally formulated or engaged through outside influence. Therefore, it is a relevant area of study that can produce interesting results when coupled with another variable.
Violence is a concerning issue in our culture and continues to affect how we live. Not only does violence exist in everyday life, but alarmingly violence has become an accepted, even preferred method of entertainment. Video games in particular are raging with violent images that beckon the user to participate rather than simply watch (Anderson, et al., 2001). Trying to find a correlation between violent video games and aggression may uncover disconcerting findings. While video games are enjoyed by players of all ages, it is significant to focus on a select group. The health and safety of children may be at risk if aggression becomes dominant. Furthermore, a child succumbing to aggression poses a concern for society. Focusing on children of a certain age would be a suitable target for this research study.
Aggression is a complex issue because it can be approached as biological, psychological, or culturally induced (Farrell, 2002). Although a research study concentrating on the correlation between stimulating violent video games and aggression would fall easily into the cultural aspect of this phenomenon, there are also biological and psychological reactions when aggression abounds. Therefore, a good research study will delve into aggression comprehensively and include all aspects of aggression and all possible variables. When considering aggression, the researcher should have an understanding of theoretical approaches to aggression as well as the factors that can be considered stimulants or antagonists of this behavior.
With a focus on children, the study should take on the perspectives of the parents or caregivers as well as the child. This is highly important because children are in the care of adults and if negative effects occur, there is a high probability of correcting the problem if the adult is enlightened by the new information. Additionally, statistics of video game play should be pursued in this research, including previous studies comprised of this research topic to enhance the findings.
This study should be qualitative due to the observation that must take place. However, it should be expected that direct aggression may not be witnessed during the study, and aggression cannot be ruled out if this is the case due to the biological and psychological elements of this behavior. Therefore, it is appropriate to complete the research with quantitative methods such as surveys that assess the attitudes and perceptions of the children after playing violent video games.
References
Anderson, C., Ihori, N., Shibuya, A., Swing, E., & Bushman, B. (2001). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: a meta-analytic review. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2010-2014/10ASISBSRS.pdf.
Department of Family and Consumer Studies. (2010). Anger and aggression in young children causes. Retrieved from http://citationmachine.net/index2.php?reqstyleid=2&mode=form&reqsrcid=APAWebPa ge&more=yes&nameCnt=1.
Farrell, A. (2002). Aggression: biological, psychological, and cultural explanations. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro02/web2/afarrell.html.
Michigan State University (2005). Violent Video Games Lead To Brain Activity. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/10/051012082710.htm.
Smith, A. (2008). Theories of aggression. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1809.
STAGE 2
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
Child aggression is a topic of interest for any parent and for society as a whole. Aggression can create a multitude of problems for children including advanced anger issues, violence, and depression. Additionally, video games are a top form of entertainment for children and the use and development of video games is steadily growing. According to Anderson and Bushman, “about 10% of children aged 2 to 18 play console and computer video games more than 1 hour per day (Anderson & Bushman, 2001, p. 353)”. Because violence is prominent in video games, it is important to study the correlation between video game violence and child aggression.
A viable research question should appropriately relay the issue being studied as well as the intent of the research (Brenner, 1997). There should be identifiable variables within the research question that outlines what is being addressed (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). Moreover, it is important for a research question to identify whether it is qualitative or quantitative in nature (Brenner, 1997).
Qualitative Research Question
A qualitative research question regarding video game violence and child aggression will state, “What is the effect of violent video games on child aggression within hours after playing?” This research question discusses the independent variable of violent video games with the dependent variable of child aggression. Although video game violence may have a lasting impact on the child by influencing that child on how to handle situations in the future, it would be difficult to address future aggression and connect this aggression to video game play. Therefore, this research question gives a more narrow emphasis by directly focusing on a time frame of hours in which to measure the aggression rather than a general perspective of aggression that might be apparent days after the game.
Quantitative Research Question
A quantitative research question regarding video game violence and child aggression will state, “How much more do children playing violent video games have aggressive feelings within hours after playing than children playing non-violent video games?” This quantitative research question focuses on comparing the two participant groups of the study. One group would be children playing violent video games and the second group would be children playing non-violent video games. This research question also aims to identify the correlation between the independent variable of video games and the dependent variable of aggressive feelings. Unlike the qualitative research question that would directly observe aggression in the children playing video games, this quantitative approach would directly focus on the feelings of the participants and measure these aggressive feelings for a comparative study. This would be done through survey questionnaires of the children in both participant groups directly after playing video games. The survey questionnaires would ask the children to identify their aggressive feelings on a scale to measure the degrees of aggressive feelings that may or may not be present and this would be measured in both participant groups.
It is important to study the correlation between child aggression and violent video games to understand the direct effects certain variables can have on children and the way they behave. A viable research question is necessary to ensure the study is relevant and understandable. By utilizing a useable research question in a qualitative or quantitative manner, the study will have a good foundation for discovery to begin.
References
Anderson, C., & Bushman, B. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 12(5), Retrieved from http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2000-2004/01ab.pdf.
Brenner, E. (1997). Developing a "research question". Retrieved from http://www.smccd.edu/accounts/brenner/lsci105/rsrchqus.html.
Trochim, W., & Donnelly, J. (2008). The research methods knowledge base (third edition). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
STAGE 3
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
For the topic of child aggression, a research focus is necessary to understand the phenomena being addressed. For a focus to be considerable, a viable research question with identifiable variables needs to be constructed in addition to having an appropriate sampling method for a qualitative study on video game violence and child aggression.
A research question must address the issue being studied and the direction of the study, along with the variables involved (Marion, 2004). In this particular study regarding video game violence and its effect on child aggression, a qualitative research question should be assembled to show a perceived correlation between video game violence and child aggression (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). The intended outcome is to prove the phenomena that participation in violent gameplay will initiate aggressive behaviors and feelings within the player, thus perpetuating possible violence in reality. The research question to be used in this study is, “what is the effect of violent video games on child aggression within hours playing?” The variables essentially power the study and a correlation must be distinguishable between the independent and dependent variables (Price, 2000). This research question discusses the independent variable of violent video games and aims to discover if this independent variable will cause the dependent variable of child aggression to ensue. The timing of the research study will also be an important variable that allows for the study to be narrowed to an immediate observation of aggression or non-aggression as opposed to a longer timeline of observation.
Sampling
This study aims to be qualitative and will have a purposeful sampling method imposed. Purposeful sampling targets subjects that have certain characteristics (Siegle, 1998). The characteristics that are needed for this sampling are children of a specific age group that regularly play video games for recreation. This study will ideally include twenty third grade students and separate these students into two sampling groups. The two groups of participants will be randomly selected to include ten students in each group. One group will consist of ten students who will play a non-violent video game for one hour. The second group will consist of the remaining ten students who will play a violent video game for one hour. Due to this study focusing on individual perceptions of violence and individual reactions or behaviors associated with the participation of the video game, the students in each group will play the video games individually rather than collectively. This will eliminate the possible variable of group influence that may explain why each student shows or does not show aggression based on learned behavior of others. The specific type of purposeful sampling will be homogenous because of the basic similarities chosen within the groups and the need to simplify the analysis to focus specifically on the independent and dependent variables (Siegle, 1998).
With a viable research question imposed that correlates the independent variable of violent video games with the dependent variable of child aggression, the phenomena of this possible correlation can be addressed and explained through qualitative means. A purposeful sampling of children will sufficiently provide an opportunity to examine the differences between non-violent video gameplay and violent video gameplay to prove or disprove the expected outcome.
References
Marion, R. (2004). Developing research questions. Retrieved from http://www.sahs.utmb.edu/pellinore/intro_to_research/wad/res_ques.htm.
Price, I. (2000). Variables. Retrieved from http://www.une.edu.au/WebStat/unit_materials/c1_behavioural_science_research/vari ables.html.
Siegle, D. (1998). Purposive sampling. Retrieved from http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Samples/purposivesampling.htm.
Trochim, W., & Donnelly, J. (2008). The research methods knowledge base (third edition). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
STAGE 4
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
It is important for any research proposal to entail the exact concepts to be measured. This includes the data to be collected and how it will be assessed. In regards to the topic of child aggression and how it may be directly related to video game violence, the concepts to be measured must be suitable for a mixed method study and should additionally outline the ways in which these concepts can be analyzed.
Measurable Concepts
Child aggression can be witnessed or assessed through the subject’s perceptions and documented feelings. Therefore, this study leans toward the qualitative side with the addition of quantitative data being analyzed. For this study, the concepts that need to be measured are the degrees of noticeable aggression in the child playing the video games, the survey depictions of the feelings and personal perceptions of aggressive tendencies, and the degree of violence in the video games. These concepts are imperative to the study, as they outline the research question and the reason for the study being conducted.
In order for the concepts to be introduced and acceptable to the research proposal, validity is a factor that must be considered. According to Nahid Golafshani, validity can be described as a determination as to “whether the research truly measures that which it was intended to measure or how truthful the research results are” (Golafshani, 2003, p. 3). This statement elicits the ideal that the research instrument correctly targets the intent of the research question. For this particular study, in order to discover the effect of aggression based on violent video game interaction, the concepts of the video game violence in addition to the degrees of aggression being displayed are key concepts to be measured. The next step is to evaluate how these concepts will be measured in a mixed method fashion that meets the needs of the study.
Types of Analysis
The concepts of a study are important and the ways in which these concepts are measured and analyzed are just as significant to the outcome and cogency of the research. Focus groups would be utilized in this study to focus on a specific age group interested in video games (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). Furthermore, the groups will consist of around ten participants per group. The participants will be selected from the same school, based on pre-interview surveys made up of questions to determine the time spent recreationally playing video games. It is important to note that the degree of violence in video games being utilized for the study will be dependent on the rating of the video game only, based on the Entertainment Software Rating Board. Informed consent forms for the students and parents will be drawn and will outline the study to occur, the video games to be played, and the expected outcome of a correlation between video game violence and child aggression. Furthermore, the parents of the study will be given literature of previous studies on the issue of video game violence that will be used in this study for analytical purposes to inform the parents of the possible effects of video game violence before consenting to the study.
Once conducted, the observations of this study will be recorded through videotaping and transcripts. Other important data will be the quantitative surveys that are given to the participants. The data from these surveys will be measured statistically for quantitative analysis with semi-structured interviews being conducted of the participants for qualitative input (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). The data will be analyzed both empirically as an indirect measure and with quantitative descriptive analysis of the surveys conducted on the participants (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). This combination of analytical techniques will fulfill the necessary components of the mixed method approach to this study. Additionally, the analytic induction method will be utilized to justify the qualitative aspect of the study. This is one of the simplest and most thorough methods of conducting a research analysis (Ratcliff, 1999). This method of analysis allows the researcher to look at the event and develop a hypothesis of what has occurred based on objective observation (Ratcliff, 1999). To add to the quantitative aspect of this study, asymmetric measures of association will be used to determine the relation between the independent variable of violent video games and the dependent variable of child aggression (Grosshans, 1992).
The ways in which to measure the concepts of this study must be approached with a qualitative standpoint in mind coupled with an approach to include quantitative data analysis. With the proper concepts in place to measure and the correct analytical tools put in place to bring the concepts and correlations to full fruition, a proper mixed method study on the effects of video game violence on child aggression can commence.
References
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8 (4), Retrieved from http://www.learningdomain.com/MEdHOME/QUALITATIVE/Reliab.VALIDITY.pdf.
Grosshans, W. (1992). Quantitative data analysis: an introduction. Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov/special.pubs/pe10111.pdf.
Ratcliff, D. (1999). 15 methods of data analysis in qualitative research. Retrieved from http://qualitativeresearch.ratcliffs.net/15methods.pdf.
Trochim, W., & Donnelly, J. (2008). The research methods knowledge base. Mason, Ohio: Cengage Learning.
STAGE 1
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
My focus was primarily on psychological studies and I read through different journals to try and discover a topic of research that would interest me. I decided that I would want to focus on children within the psychological spectrum of research. After coming across several articles on child aggression and correlations with this behavior, I decided to research video game violence and child aggression. I found several pertinent studies that would help me formulate my focus on this topic.
Aggressive behavior in children is a concern for many parents. Aggression usually builds and becomes more of an aggravating circumstance and can be fueled by anger, fear, low self-esteem, anxiety from a lack of control and a combination of these factors (Department of Family and Consumer Studies, 2010). Aggression is a serious matter because of the problematic emotional development that can occur with a child displaying consistent aggressive tendencies. Furthermore, that child will continue to cope with situations in an aggressive manner if not addressed properly. The reactions others may have to aggression may be fear, avoidance, or submission to the behavior, enabling the child with aggression to have control, and this can possibly encourage the aggressive behavior to continue.
It is imperative to reinforce positive behavior through teaching a better way for children to express themselves. To understand why aggression is an issue, caregivers must try and discern the causes of the aggressive behavior (Department of Family and Consumer Studies, 2010). Emotions, tiredness, and other internal mechanisms may be a factor. However, there are environmental factors and other elements that can be considered to be a stimulant to aggression. Studies on aggression have become more extensive and research has suggested different approaches to the onset of aggression. One of the well-received approaches to aggression is the social learning theory in which aggression is learned initially through social interaction and is maintained by other conditions (Smith, 2008). With this theory of aggression, operant conditioning is also a factor. This theory would support the hypotheses that violent video games promote aggressive behavior through rewarding the violent activity with coins and other incentives related to the game.
Violence is rampant in our culture and steadily rising. Technology is growing rapidly as well. Entertainment is also on a steady rise, and various forms of entertainment are now related to technology in vast ways, and seemingly following the wave of growth in violence. One of the most popular forms of entertainment, fueled by advanced technology, is video games. This industry is embracing the depiction of violent images for sale growth more so than previous decades. Video games are a popular form of entertainment because of the player’s ability to manipulate the sequences of events. However, with video games rated for maturity rising in development and sales, entertainment containing violence has been raised to a new level. René Weber, an assistant professor at Michigan State University and the conductor of a research study on this issue stated, “m-rated games contain concerning violence: that is, realistic, rewarded and justified violent activities of attractive perpetrators in real-life settings” (Michigan State University, 2005, p. 1). Weber conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging study on 13 male research participants to prove a correlation between aggressiveness and violent video games (Michigan State University, 2005). Brain activity of the participants were recorded and analyzed as the participants played violent video games. This study showed a link between the characteristic regions of interest in the brain that shows aggressiveness and the participants playing the violent games (Michigan State University, 2005). According to Weber, “there is a neurological link and there is a short-term causal relationship” (Michigan State University, 2005). This discovery justifies further research into the phenomenon of aggression and how it may be enhanced through violent interactive play, especially when considering young children.
Perspectives
A desire for understanding human behavior is a defining interest in our culture and will most likely never cease. This is a fascinating area of study that expansive with endless possible discoveries to be made. With the incredible advancements of technology and a modernized approach to the world we live in continuously changing the way we perceive reality, it is necessary to continue to explore human behavior as it relates to our fluctuating environment. Aggression is a behavior that can be internally formulated or engaged through outside influence. Therefore, it is a relevant area of study that can produce interesting results when coupled with another variable.
Violence is a concerning issue in our culture and continues to affect how we live. Not only does violence exist in everyday life, but alarmingly violence has become an accepted, even preferred method of entertainment. Video games in particular are raging with violent images that beckon the user to participate rather than simply watch (Anderson, et al., 2001). Trying to find a correlation between violent video games and aggression may uncover disconcerting findings. While video games are enjoyed by players of all ages, it is significant to focus on a select group. The health and safety of children may be at risk if aggression becomes dominant. Furthermore, a child succumbing to aggression poses a concern for society. Focusing on children of a certain age would be a suitable target for this research study.
Aggression is a complex issue because it can be approached as biological, psychological, or culturally induced (Farrell, 2002). Although a research study concentrating on the correlation between stimulating violent video games and aggression would fall easily into the cultural aspect of this phenomenon, there are also biological and psychological reactions when aggression abounds. Therefore, a good research study will delve into aggression comprehensively and include all aspects of aggression and all possible variables. When considering aggression, the researcher should have an understanding of theoretical approaches to aggression as well as the factors that can be considered stimulants or antagonists of this behavior.
With a focus on children, the study should take on the perspectives of the parents or caregivers as well as the child. This is highly important because children are in the care of adults and if negative effects occur, there is a high probability of correcting the problem if the adult is enlightened by the new information. Additionally, statistics of video game play should be pursued in this research, including previous studies comprised of this research topic to enhance the findings.
This study should be qualitative due to the observation that must take place. However, it should be expected that direct aggression may not be witnessed during the study, and aggression cannot be ruled out if this is the case due to the biological and psychological elements of this behavior. Therefore, it is appropriate to complete the research with quantitative methods such as surveys that assess the attitudes and perceptions of the children after playing violent video games.
References
Anderson, C., Ihori, N., Shibuya, A., Swing, E., & Bushman, B. (2001). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: a meta-analytic review. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2010-2014/10ASISBSRS.pdf.
Department of Family and Consumer Studies. (2010). Anger and aggression in young children causes. Retrieved from http://citationmachine.net/index2.php?reqstyleid=2&mode=form&reqsrcid=APAWebPa ge&more=yes&nameCnt=1.
Farrell, A. (2002). Aggression: biological, psychological, and cultural explanations. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro02/web2/afarrell.html.
Michigan State University (2005). Violent Video Games Lead To Brain Activity. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/10/051012082710.htm.
Smith, A. (2008). Theories of aggression. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1809.
STAGE 2
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
Child aggression is a topic of interest for any parent and for society as a whole. Aggression can create a multitude of problems for children including advanced anger issues, violence, and depression. Additionally, video games are a top form of entertainment for children and the use and development of video games is steadily growing. According to Anderson and Bushman, “about 10% of children aged 2 to 18 play console and computer video games more than 1 hour per day (Anderson & Bushman, 2001, p. 353)”. Because violence is prominent in video games, it is important to study the correlation between video game violence and child aggression.
A viable research question should appropriately relay the issue being studied as well as the intent of the research (Brenner, 1997). There should be identifiable variables within the research question that outlines what is being addressed (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). Moreover, it is important for a research question to identify whether it is qualitative or quantitative in nature (Brenner, 1997).
Qualitative Research Question
A qualitative research question regarding video game violence and child aggression will state, “What is the effect of violent video games on child aggression within hours after playing?” This research question discusses the independent variable of violent video games with the dependent variable of child aggression. Although video game violence may have a lasting impact on the child by influencing that child on how to handle situations in the future, it would be difficult to address future aggression and connect this aggression to video game play. Therefore, this research question gives a more narrow emphasis by directly focusing on a time frame of hours in which to measure the aggression rather than a general perspective of aggression that might be apparent days after the game.
Quantitative Research Question
A quantitative research question regarding video game violence and child aggression will state, “How much more do children playing violent video games have aggressive feelings within hours after playing than children playing non-violent video games?” This quantitative research question focuses on comparing the two participant groups of the study. One group would be children playing violent video games and the second group would be children playing non-violent video games. This research question also aims to identify the correlation between the independent variable of video games and the dependent variable of aggressive feelings. Unlike the qualitative research question that would directly observe aggression in the children playing video games, this quantitative approach would directly focus on the feelings of the participants and measure these aggressive feelings for a comparative study. This would be done through survey questionnaires of the children in both participant groups directly after playing video games. The survey questionnaires would ask the children to identify their aggressive feelings on a scale to measure the degrees of aggressive feelings that may or may not be present and this would be measured in both participant groups.
It is important to study the correlation between child aggression and violent video games to understand the direct effects certain variables can have on children and the way they behave. A viable research question is necessary to ensure the study is relevant and understandable. By utilizing a useable research question in a qualitative or quantitative manner, the study will have a good foundation for discovery to begin.
References
Anderson, C., & Bushman, B. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 12(5), Retrieved from http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2000-2004/01ab.pdf.
Brenner, E. (1997). Developing a "research question". Retrieved from http://www.smccd.edu/accounts/brenner/lsci105/rsrchqus.html.
Trochim, W., & Donnelly, J. (2008). The research methods knowledge base (third edition). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
STAGE 3
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
For the topic of child aggression, a research focus is necessary to understand the phenomena being addressed. For a focus to be considerable, a viable research question with identifiable variables needs to be constructed in addition to having an appropriate sampling method for a qualitative study on video game violence and child aggression.
A research question must address the issue being studied and the direction of the study, along with the variables involved (Marion, 2004). In this particular study regarding video game violence and its effect on child aggression, a qualitative research question should be assembled to show a perceived correlation between video game violence and child aggression (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). The intended outcome is to prove the phenomena that participation in violent gameplay will initiate aggressive behaviors and feelings within the player, thus perpetuating possible violence in reality. The research question to be used in this study is, “what is the effect of violent video games on child aggression within hours playing?” The variables essentially power the study and a correlation must be distinguishable between the independent and dependent variables (Price, 2000). This research question discusses the independent variable of violent video games and aims to discover if this independent variable will cause the dependent variable of child aggression to ensue. The timing of the research study will also be an important variable that allows for the study to be narrowed to an immediate observation of aggression or non-aggression as opposed to a longer timeline of observation.
Sampling
This study aims to be qualitative and will have a purposeful sampling method imposed. Purposeful sampling targets subjects that have certain characteristics (Siegle, 1998). The characteristics that are needed for this sampling are children of a specific age group that regularly play video games for recreation. This study will ideally include twenty third grade students and separate these students into two sampling groups. The two groups of participants will be randomly selected to include ten students in each group. One group will consist of ten students who will play a non-violent video game for one hour. The second group will consist of the remaining ten students who will play a violent video game for one hour. Due to this study focusing on individual perceptions of violence and individual reactions or behaviors associated with the participation of the video game, the students in each group will play the video games individually rather than collectively. This will eliminate the possible variable of group influence that may explain why each student shows or does not show aggression based on learned behavior of others. The specific type of purposeful sampling will be homogenous because of the basic similarities chosen within the groups and the need to simplify the analysis to focus specifically on the independent and dependent variables (Siegle, 1998).
With a viable research question imposed that correlates the independent variable of violent video games with the dependent variable of child aggression, the phenomena of this possible correlation can be addressed and explained through qualitative means. A purposeful sampling of children will sufficiently provide an opportunity to examine the differences between non-violent video gameplay and violent video gameplay to prove or disprove the expected outcome.
References
Marion, R. (2004). Developing research questions. Retrieved from http://www.sahs.utmb.edu/pellinore/intro_to_research/wad/res_ques.htm.
Price, I. (2000). Variables. Retrieved from http://www.une.edu.au/WebStat/unit_materials/c1_behavioural_science_research/vari ables.html.
Siegle, D. (1998). Purposive sampling. Retrieved from http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Samples/purposivesampling.htm.
Trochim, W., & Donnelly, J. (2008). The research methods knowledge base (third edition). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
STAGE 4
Video Game Violence and Child Aggression
It is important for any research proposal to entail the exact concepts to be measured. This includes the data to be collected and how it will be assessed. In regards to the topic of child aggression and how it may be directly related to video game violence, the concepts to be measured must be suitable for a mixed method study and should additionally outline the ways in which these concepts can be analyzed.
Measurable Concepts
Child aggression can be witnessed or assessed through the subject’s perceptions and documented feelings. Therefore, this study leans toward the qualitative side with the addition of quantitative data being analyzed. For this study, the concepts that need to be measured are the degrees of noticeable aggression in the child playing the video games, the survey depictions of the feelings and personal perceptions of aggressive tendencies, and the degree of violence in the video games. These concepts are imperative to the study, as they outline the research question and the reason for the study being conducted.
In order for the concepts to be introduced and acceptable to the research proposal, validity is a factor that must be considered. According to Nahid Golafshani, validity can be described as a determination as to “whether the research truly measures that which it was intended to measure or how truthful the research results are” (Golafshani, 2003, p. 3). This statement elicits the ideal that the research instrument correctly targets the intent of the research question. For this particular study, in order to discover the effect of aggression based on violent video game interaction, the concepts of the video game violence in addition to the degrees of aggression being displayed are key concepts to be measured. The next step is to evaluate how these concepts will be measured in a mixed method fashion that meets the needs of the study.
Types of Analysis
The concepts of a study are important and the ways in which these concepts are measured and analyzed are just as significant to the outcome and cogency of the research. Focus groups would be utilized in this study to focus on a specific age group interested in video games (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). Furthermore, the groups will consist of around ten participants per group. The participants will be selected from the same school, based on pre-interview surveys made up of questions to determine the time spent recreationally playing video games. It is important to note that the degree of violence in video games being utilized for the study will be dependent on the rating of the video game only, based on the Entertainment Software Rating Board. Informed consent forms for the students and parents will be drawn and will outline the study to occur, the video games to be played, and the expected outcome of a correlation between video game violence and child aggression. Furthermore, the parents of the study will be given literature of previous studies on the issue of video game violence that will be used in this study for analytical purposes to inform the parents of the possible effects of video game violence before consenting to the study.
Once conducted, the observations of this study will be recorded through videotaping and transcripts. Other important data will be the quantitative surveys that are given to the participants. The data from these surveys will be measured statistically for quantitative analysis with semi-structured interviews being conducted of the participants for qualitative input (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). The data will be analyzed both empirically as an indirect measure and with quantitative descriptive analysis of the surveys conducted on the participants (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). This combination of analytical techniques will fulfill the necessary components of the mixed method approach to this study. Additionally, the analytic induction method will be utilized to justify the qualitative aspect of the study. This is one of the simplest and most thorough methods of conducting a research analysis (Ratcliff, 1999). This method of analysis allows the researcher to look at the event and develop a hypothesis of what has occurred based on objective observation (Ratcliff, 1999). To add to the quantitative aspect of this study, asymmetric measures of association will be used to determine the relation between the independent variable of violent video games and the dependent variable of child aggression (Grosshans, 1992).
The ways in which to measure the concepts of this study must be approached with a qualitative standpoint in mind coupled with an approach to include quantitative data analysis. With the proper concepts in place to measure and the correct analytical tools put in place to bring the concepts and correlations to full fruition, a proper mixed method study on the effects of video game violence on child aggression can commence.
References
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8 (4), Retrieved from http://www.learningdomain.com/MEdHOME/QUALITATIVE/Reliab.VALIDITY.pdf.
Grosshans, W. (1992). Quantitative data analysis: an introduction. Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov/special.pubs/pe10111.pdf.
Ratcliff, D. (1999). 15 methods of data analysis in qualitative research. Retrieved from http://qualitativeresearch.ratcliffs.net/15methods.pdf.
Trochim, W., & Donnelly, J. (2008). The research methods knowledge base. Mason, Ohio: Cengage Learning.
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