The Impact of Neurophysiology ©

The Impact of Neurophysiology on Learning
Jeannette Villatoro
BKJ0934A
Professor Susan Robertson
September 07, 2009












The Impact of Neurophysiology on Learning

Learning is a fundamental aspect of life that every human being experiences and in some degree relies on for survival and progression. Learning takes place in a variety of ways and changes in an instant depending on many variables. With the importance of learning being a major interest in psychology, theories of learning have been introduced and continually improved throughout the history of time. Neurophysiology is a remarkable study in learning that focuses on how the brain and body coexist and work together to bring action upon learning. This author will attempt to define and explore neurophysiology, discuss the impact it has on the learning process, and uncover how understanding the nature of neurophysiology can impact the study of psychology in today’s world.

Neurophysiology

Philosophy was rampant centuries ago as many scientists were moved toward this quest of wisdom and intellect (Hartfield, 1998). What many philosophers fumbled upon was the contemplation of how the brain functioned. This led to the intent to prove or disprove the existence of a soul and the correlation between physical presence with psychological motivation. René Descartes was one philosopher who was strikingly thorough and intense with his deliberations of the brain and mind back in the 16th century. The problem, however, was that Descartes had no way to actually study the nervous system. He found himself concentrating on the fascinating statues that were powered and controlled in the Royal Gardens at Saint-Germain and realized that the human body was a complicated mechanical instrument that was similar to a “piece of plumbing” (Carlson, 2005, p. 23). This led to a strong desire to uncover the mystery of the brain and how it relates to the nervous system. With the birth of psychological study, many theorists and psychologists aimed to unearth the dimensions of learning in capacity with the mind. Separation of the mind and body soon became a desired pursuit in psychology (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). What later progressed was an understanding that it is the relationship between the mind and body that made learning capable rather than the severance of the two distinctive elements.

Some particular studies in early physiology and neuroscience propelled this area of psychology to the forefront. One study conducted by early theorist Rene Descartes (Hartfield, 1998) was brought about in response to a psychological inquiry about binocular single vision. Human beings and most other creatures have two eyes; yet see only one object in single vision. How this phenomenon is realized became an interest and Descartes sought answers (Hartfield, 1998). Descartes proposed a “physiological unification of the binocular stimulation in the optic chiasma” (Hartfield, 1998, p. 389). Further along in his study he discovered that these optic stimuli were delivered to separate sides of the brain, which alluded to the gradual study of the physiological nature of the mind and body.

Another great contributor to the science of neurophysiology in the delicate stages of its discovery was physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington. He concentrated his efforts distinctly on the nervous system and carried the study to unique proportions that included the processes that neurons have in the brain. He later was able to discern the functions of certain neurons as well as deliver astounding discovery of “the anatomical concepts of the neuron and synapse” (Eccles, J., 1957. p. 218) and how these particular areas of the brain in relation to one another promotes learning and behavior to abound. Sherrington’s accomplishments sprouted new developments in neurophysiology in a time period that had many limitations on such measures of study.

With the major intellectual donations that such philosophers and physiologists have made throughout history, the study of neurophysiology boomed within the psychological industry and not only tested prior belief systems of the nervous system but also endorsed new development in the area. Neurophysiology, considered a new science of the brain, has since swept through psychology with a great force. The physiology of the nervous system and the connection of this with the theories of learning have stimulated many questions about how the mind and body function in a marriage to promote human progression.

Neurophysiology and Learning

Neurophysiology has been a progressive study in the field of psychology, specifically with learning theories. Essentially, how we learn is not only the way to dissect the workings of the mind and body, but how a person relates to their environment and executes the learning process. How a person learns and how they implement that learning is an extraordinary process that can be affected by external and internal forces; biological and environmental factors.

Many learning theorists continued Descartes’ desire to reach understanding in the physiological aspects of psychology and how we learn. Donald Olding Hebb later developed a theory that inspired the belief that “infants are born with a neural network with random interconnections” (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005, p. 379). Sensory experiences, according to Hebb, cause this neural network to make sense of the connections and become organized in a capacity for interaction with the environment to be successful (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). This offered a major shift in the study of neural science in that it begged to include the important effects of environmental impacts on the study of learning.

Because neurophysiology deals with the atmosphere of the physical body and the internal messages that are transmitted to reach a desired behavior or action, there is a close association with learning. The body itself learns as well as the human being learns in a mental standpoint. The nervous system controls the bodily functions and the brain’s reaction to certain outside influences as well as inside biological needs and occurrences. One study in particular that was conducted on guinea pigs showed how learning can be affected and even ignited by the intensity of synaptic pathways of certain neurons by analyzing the anterior cingulate cortex (McCormick, Connors, Lighthall, Prince, 1985).

Behavioral learning experiments often aim to measure “the model parameters and unobserved cognitive processes” (Prerau, Smith, Eden, Kubota, Yanike, Suzuki, Graybiel, Brown, 2009, p. 1) through continuous recorded observation and binary observation. According to Prerau, et al., “although both types of performance measures are often recorded simultaneously, the two are not used in combination to evaluate learning” (Prerau, et al., 2009, p. 1). This may pose difficulty in discerning the relationship between both continuous and binary observation, however, the experiment uses a state-space model of learning to estimate the likelihood of each behavior separately and combined through an algorithm that approximates expectation maximization (Prerau, et al., 2009). This kind of data collection helps capture relative phenomenon in regard to neurotransmissions and how this affects behavior that is displayed in action.

The central nervous system is a predominant area of concentration in neurophysiology. The nervous system is the network in which messages are transmitted to various parts of the body. Neurotransmitters are chemical messages that respond to an action potentioal that attempts to make something occur within the brain (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). In quintessence, the central nervous system is the entity that controls the interactions between the brain and body. Therefore, there is no wonder that it is a strong influence on neurophysiology. The central nervous system ministers to our ability to learn and act upon the learning that occurs.
The neurotransmitters in the brain are fundamental to behavior and neurophysiology. The body and the conscious have a unique marriage of duality that incorporate physical and mental processes to take place. How one reacts to the environment surrounding them in addition to adapting to an environment that is ever changing is basis on many factors with some being biological in nature. The communication between neurons is an important place to start when trying to discern how the nervous system controls behavior. Neurons have a core function of communicating for a purpose that will “gather sensory information, make plans, and initiate behaviors” (Carlson, 2005, p. 48). This is done through synaptic transmission, which allows messages to be carried by neurotransmitters through terminal buttons. In essence, this is how neurons communicate and is the beginning of the learning process.
Stimulation that occurs in an environment that is dangerous or should be avoided can be learned through behavior. When a person faces such a situation, they have the opportunity to recognize the facts and make an action in response. Moreover, that person will also incur learning that will aid in the evasion of such situations in the future. Learning in itself is a learning experience that can be never-ending. As Carlson states, “learning produces changes in the way we perceive, act, think, and feel” (Carlson, 2005, p. 361).

Motor learning is one of the basic modes of learning and involves changes in the neural circuits that control a person’s movement. Even so, motor learning is guided by sensory stimuli (Carlson, 2005). Relational learning is perhaps the most multifaceted type of learning that has to do with the nervous system, neural communication and a behavioral reaction to stimuli. Therefore, the brain and nervous system are the most intrinsic aspects of learning and behavior in the human body. Damage to these areas will stunt motor skills and can adherently modify behavior and learning. Neurophysiology aims to identify the ways in which the nervous system and brain elicit learning and behavior so that corrections can be made in an adversary circumstance.

Neurons are fascinating entities that connect and transmit messages to allow for behavior to follow. However, environmental objects that one experiences has a stimulating affect that results in a complex pattern of neurons (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). As Donald Hebb purported, these cell assemblies can be changed by our perception and identification of certain objects. Not only do our neurons stimulate behavior and learning from environmental influence, but the environment can most certainly have a an effect on the way neurons function. This theory proposes that learning takes place within us internally as well as externally among the environment in which we find ourselves. And naturally, both scenarios are ever changing and constantly evolving which makes the process of learning complex with a deliverance of new information to be gained frequently among the field of neurophysiology.

The future of Neurophysiology

It is evident that the study of neurophysiology is crucial to the study of psychology. With the vast amount of resources available and the speed in which technology is growing, neurophysiology is moving quickly into the future. When applying the theories of learning to the distinctive characteristics of neuro-based science, the clinical aspect of neurophysiology becomes pronounced to jumpstart the understanding of how the human being learns. According to Jasper Daube, by studying the functions of the nervous system in a clinical setting, we will be able to utilize the information for “diagnostics, intensive care, and intraoperative monitoring” (Daube, J., 2009. p. 1). This allows neurophysiology to not only diagnose and treat disorders but to allow the learning process to continually flourish with the new developments of the nervous system and brain.

Learning has a solid place in the future of neurophysiology. According to Carlson, “Electrical stimulation of circuits within the hippocampal formation can lead to long-term synaptic changes that seem to be among those responsible for learning” (Carlson, 2005, p. 362). This means that induction of long-term potential can bring about future discoveries in the important region of the brian; the temporal lobe.

Society has a major role in the future of neurophysiology. It is a science that is the basis of medical practice and must be nurtured incessantly. The bridge between psychology and the medical aspects of the field blend eloquently with one another when neurophysiology is given proper attention. As Irving Zucker said, “the society’s future and indeed the discipline of physiology depend critically on our ability to adapt, change, and grow” (Zucker, 2008, p.3).

Presently, we utilize measure of study that helps us achieve understanding of neural activity. This kind of knowledge propels neurophysiology into the future. By recording the brain’s metabolic and synaptic activity, we are able to witness increase in activity in certain regions of the brain, metabolic rates, and the chemicals that work to produce physiological changes and subsequently enable learning to occur and behavior to be manifested. Psychology will always introduce a study or theory that shifts the paradigm of how physiology works (Zucker, 2008). The continued effort of neuroscientists and physiologists must direct the attention toward the new approach that these changes present.

The ultimate goal for the future of neurophysiology is to determine the beginning progression of abnormalities in nervous system development in uterus. This could potentially inhibit destructive disorders from causing damage and preventing such abnormalities to occur. Clinicians would be able to diagnose and correct many developmental problems that are troubling to a newborn child with poor nervous system and brain functioning. Although this may be a desired outcome for the study of neurophysiology, there is a long way before such miraculous objectives can be gained.

The beginning of neurophysiology was sparked by a curiosity of how the nervous system works in relation to our thoughts and behaviors. By examining the nervous system and the brain, it was gradually made aware that learning is an ongoing process that is directly influenced by the biological nature of one’s self. Neurophysiology is vibrant with aspects of both science and psychology that coexist for the purpose of identifying causal symptoms of learning and behavior. The human body and mind are as complicated as the conscience and by relishing the idiosyncratic components of each dimension, studies can continue to be useful in the field of neurophysiology and how it impacts the learning process of human beings.





















References

Carlson, N. (2005) Foundations of physiological psychology (sixth edition).Boston,
Massachusetts: Pearson Education.

Daube, J. (2003). Basic neurophysiology. Retrieved from
http://www.neurophys.com/Basic_Neurophysiology/.

Eccles, J. (1957). Some aspects of Sherrington's contribution to neurophysiology. Notes
and Records of the Royal Society of London, 12(2), Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/530837.

Hartfield, G. (1998). The brain's "new" science: psychology, neurophysiology, and
constraint. Philosophy of Science, 67, Retrieved September 7, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/188682.

Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson, M. (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th
edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

McCormick, D., Connors, B., Lighthall, J., & Prince, D. (1985). Comparative
electrophysiology of pyramidal and sparsely spiny stellate neurons of the neocortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 54(4), 1.

Prerau, M, Smith, A, Eden, U, Kubota, Y, & Yanike, M (2009). Characterizing learning
by simultaneous analysis of continuous and binary measures of performance. Journal of Neuropsychology, 50(5), Retrieved from http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/91251.2008v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=learning&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT.

Zucker, I. (2008). Through the looking glass: The future of physiology. passion,
responsibility and morality in science . The Physiologist, 51(2), Retrieved from http://www.the-aps.org/publications/tphys/2008html/April/81president.htm.

Jeannette,
This is an outstanding paper in all respects. I can think of nothing else to say except that it is my hope you will move on to graduate school. Best of luck!

Functionalistic Theory ©

The Importance of the Functionalistic Theory
Jeannette Villatoro
BKJ0934A
Professor Susan Robertson
August 22, 2009












The Importance of the Funcionalistic Theory

Psychology has explored many learning theories that are still present among studies today. One pioneering theory delved into the inner workings of the mind and how it functions in concurrence with the environment. Functionalism battled previous notions of learning in early psychology and has held a strong foundation for many following psychologists and scientists. The main points of the functionalistic theory are the conscience of an organism and how the environment affects that conscience. These components of functionalism were diligently supported and expanded by three significant psychological theorists.

William James has been established as the founder of the functionalistic theory (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). The conscience of an organism was his main focus as he attempted to prove its significance and influence on how an organism ultimately functions in the world. James argued that a conscience not only had a strong purpose, but he also contended that the conscience could be changed in its deliverance as affected by the environment (Thornton, 1982). Behavior of an organism was the main focus of the functionalistic theory and many theorists pursued functionalism and contributed to the theory greatly.

Perhaps one of the most prominent and impacting influences on psychology and the functionalistic theory was Edward L. Thorndike who brought the theory of learning to a much-needed vibrancy. Thorndike’s work revolved around behaviorism and comparative psychology, along with intelligence testing and many more facets not yet fully discovered in psychology during his time (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). Thorndike utilized animal testing to uncover the mysteries of the mind and how conscience and intelligence play a role in the behaviors and actions of an organism. In essence, Thorndike paved the way for future studies in functionalism by explaining behavior and intelligence through animal testing and interpreting the results and applying them to human means.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner is yet another major donor to the theories of learning. Skinner focused intently on behaviorism and how organisms react to their environment (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005). This is a very important aspect of the functionalistic theory, as functionalism serves as a measure of how behavior and environmental influences change and shape one’s actions and conscience. Skinner studied the misbehavior of organisms and what causes such things to occur. This is has always been a serious matter in society because it relates to the causal effects of the mind in relation to bad deeds. When crimes are committed or behavior reaches a boiling point, it was originally Skinner who attempted to discover why. Skinner was a major opposition to most psychologists because of his belief that a systematic form of behavior technology can be implemented to radically change the way an organism behaves, and furthermore, Skinner induced that it is completely necessary to eradicate negative behaviors that seemingly surface within every working mind. This was of course inhibiting to the widely believed notion that human beings are “rational, free, and dignified” (Hergehahn, Olson, 2005, p.110). Skinner “discounted the empirical as well as philosophical components of behaviorism” (Thornton, 1982, p.1) in testing elements of human nature that many believed impossible to touch scientifically.

Clark Leonard Hull had just as much authority over the functionalistic theory as the others, yet he brought a more logical structure to the study of behavior. He established harmonizing postulates and theorems to prove the empirical nature of these scientific theories. Unlike other psychologists whom swam in the beginning waters of the functionalistic theory of learning, Hull indeed subscribed to the conception that “empirical observations, supplemented by shrewd conjuncture” (Hergenhahn, Olson, 2005, p. 132) was the recipe needed for successful behavioral study. Hull’s contributions were unique and quite necessary because the functionalistic theory concentrated on aspects of psychology that were difficult to prove using standard scientific procedures and empirical examinations. With Hull’s commonsensical systems of theoretical study, functionalism was propelled into the continuum of meaningful psychological exploration.

Functionalism is a fascinating principle of psychology that began in a time in which the study of the mind was almost a mythical pursuit. Physiological psychology and the basic workings of the brain had been tirelessly driven into contemplation among many theorists. This brought about a wonderment of the conscience, how it drives an organism, and if the environment can bring a strong diversity to how that conscience works. With major breakthroughs in behaviorism introduced by the pioneering theorists that lead functionalism into the present time, it is safe to say that the study of the conscience and its relation to behavior will continue to penetrate many psychological studies in the future.





References

Hergenhahn, B.R., Olson, M, (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th
edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Thornton, Edward E. (1982). A transpersonal critique of behaviorism. Journal of
Religion and Health, 21, Retrieved August 28, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27505655.